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SCHOOL EFFICIENCY MONOGRAPH 



THE TEACHING 
OF SPELLING 

TIDYMAN 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 






SCHOOL EFFICIENCY MONOGRAPHS 

Education of Defectives in the Public Schools 

Rural Education and the Consolidated School 

2lirtt*rtt«irii| 
Problems in State High School Finance 

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Record Forms for Vocational Schools 

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©ftgrnan 
The Teaching of Spelling 



SCHOOL EFFICIENCY MONOGRAPHS 

THE 

TEACHING OF 

SPELLING 

BY 
WILLARD F. TIDYMAN, M.A., Pd.D. 

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND 

DIRECTOR OF THE TRAINING SCHOOL, STATE 

NORMAL SCHOOL FOR WOMEN 

FARMVILLE, VIRGINIA 




YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NEW YORK 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 
1919 



u> 



WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

THE HOUSE OP APPLIED KNOWLEDGE 

Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson 

yonkers-on-htjdson, new york 
2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 



Publishers of the following professional 
works: School Efficiency Series, edited 
by Paul H. Hanus, complete in thirteen 
volumes; Educational Survey Series, 
four volumes already issued and others 
projected ; School Efficiency Monographs, 
eleven numbers now ready, others in 
active preparation 



1Y -5 1919 



Copyright, 1919, by World Book Company 
All rights reserved 



©CI. A 5 15428 



5 



TO MY PARENTS 

JOHN E. GILBERT 

REBECCA DIETZ GILBERT 



PREFACE 

THE purpose of this book is to bring together from 
all sources the more reliable and pertinent facts 
in the teaching of spelling, and to present them in their 
relation to the practical problems which the teacher has 
to face every day in the classroom. 

The book is an outgrowth of a thesis on w The Ex- 
perimental Studies of Spelling," which embodied an 
exhaustive study of some ninety investigations. In 
the preparation of the book, this material was supple- 
mented by such information as could be gathered from 
the general literature of the subject, including books 
and articles on methods of teaching and on the psychol- 
ogy of learning, and the better spelling texts of the day. 
A third source of material was the author's three years' 
experience as an elementary school principal and super- 
visor in testing, evaluating, and applying in actual 
classroom work the conclusions of the preceding 
studies. 

The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness 
to the many investigators and teachers whose fruitful 
labors have made this book possible. He is indebted, 
more especially, to Dean Thomas M. Balliet, of New 
York University, for suggesting the preparation of the 
book and aiding in its construction; to Dr. F. J. Kelly, 
Dean of the Department of Education, University of 
Kansas, Mr. F. S. Camp, Superintendent of Schools, 
Stamford, Connecticut, and Miss Alice Scott, Supervisor 
of Instruction, Elwood, Indiana, for reading the manu- 
script and offering many helpful suggestions; to Miss 
Nellie V. Wedderspoon, Miss Sara A. Ward, Miss Eliza- 
beth M. Drumm, and Miss Helen A. Brown, teachers in 

[vii] 



PREFACE 

the Hart School, Stamford, Connecticut, for lesson 
plans ; and to Mr. James M. Grainger, Head of the 
Department of English, State Normal School for 
Women, Farmville, Virginia, for reading the proof. 



[viii] 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Selection and Classification of Words 1 
II. Preliminary Testing for Word Difficulty . 21 

III. The Psychological Basis of Spelling . . SI 

IV. The Presentation of Words 41 

V. Independent Study and Reviews . . . .81 

VI. The Prevention and Treatment of Errors 89 

VII. Testing Ill 

VIII. The Measurement of Spelling Efficiency . 116 
IXl Factors Affecting Spelling Efficiency . 131 

Appendix 

A. Spelling Plans . . . ... . ... * . 145 

B. A Minimum Word List . . . „, „, . 152 

Bibliography 

Spelling Material ......... 163 

The Psychology of Spelling . . . .... . . 166 

The Pedagogy of Spelling 168 

Scales and Standard Tests . . . . . .170 

Factors Affecting Spelling Efficiency . . .172 
General Studies — Summaries, Discussions, etc. 175 

Index . .. ... m .. ; ., ., M .. ra m l. .« ,. 177 



[ix] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

CHAPTER ONE 

The Selection and Classification of Words 

the traditional spelling material 

THE study of spelling has value for the child just to 
the extent that the words learned are the words 
that the child uses or that he will use in the near future 
in doing the writing involved in carrying on the every- 
day affairs of life. This simple truth, so widely ac- 
cepted today, was little understood in the past. As a 
consequence, curricula were filled with words of infre- 
quent use and of unusual difficulty. 

Large numbers of unusual words in spelling lists. 
The more recent offenders in this particular were the 
textbook makers and teachers, who by arbitrary selec- 
tion, or by comparison with the results obtained by per- 
sons following similar methods of investigation, com- 
piled long lists of words of special or limited use, includ- 
ing many technical terms from geography, history, gov- 
ernment, law, medicine, physiology, and the like. This 
material came from many sources, but was most fre- 
quently taken from textbooks. The result of this 
method of selecting words is seen in the following groups 
of words taken almost at random from a speller in com- 
mon use: dyspepsia, hydrophobia, sciatica, catarrh, 
eczema, rabies, gastritis, jaundice; macadamize, avoir- 
dupois, imperturbable, inexplicable, porte-cochere. 

Traces of the traditional material still found. Such 
compilations of words for spelling purposes, the prod- 
uct of a false conception of the aims and purposes of 
the teaching of spelling, have come down to us as a 

[i] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

part of our inheritance from the past and have domi- 
nated the work of the school until quite recent years. 
Even yet traces of the traditional material are found in 
many schoolrooms. Time and effort spent in strug- 
gling for the mastery of words of this character are for 
the most part time and effort wasted. By dint of de- 
termined effort and persistent drill the child may be able 
to master these words and to retain them throughout his 
school life. But when the school doors finally close be- 
hind him the old knowledge and skill have little value; 
through disuse they soon pass away, while the child 
is left poorly equipped for the real demands of life. 

THE SOURCE OF SPELLING MATERIAL 

Improvement in the quality of spelling material de- 
pends upon the adoption of saner principles of selecting 
words. The first principle of importance concerns the 
source of material. 

Hearing, reading, spealcing, and writing vocabularies 
distinguished. Instead of constituting one large vocab- 
ulary of words, each word of which serves as occasion 
demands in the getting of thought in hearing and in 
reading, and the expression of thought in speaking and 
in writing, the words that we use are seen on closer ob- 
servation to fall into four more or less distinct groups 
which form the vocabularies of hearing, reading, speak- 
ing, and writing. A word of one vocabulary may or 
may not be found in the other vocabularies. To illus- 
trate, the word face is familiar to us, whether we hear 
it spoken, see it on the printed page, or use it in speak- 
ing or writing. The same is not true of impregnable or 
imperturbable. The meaning of either is apparent 
when heard or read. Impregnable is common enough, 
also, to occur in our speech, but I doubt if we should 

[2] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

take any liberties with imperturbable. Probably 
neither word would be used commonly in writing, cer- 
tainly not by children. 

In short, there are kinds and degrees of acquaint- 
anceship with words as with friends. Some words are 
known to us only as we hear them spoken by other per- 
sons. I Others are recognized in our reading but are 
strangers to our speaking and writing vocabularies., 
Finally, there are a few choice words with which we are 
so familiar that we use them with confidence to convey 
our thoughts to others. Among the latter are the 
words that we use in writing. 

Words for spelling limited to the writing vocabulary. 
These distinctions between the hearing, speaking, read- 
ing, and writing vocabularies must be kept in mind in 
rtfaking word lists. It is evidently unwise to have a 
pupil spend the greater part of his spelling time upon 
words that appear only in his hearing, reading, or 
speaking vocabularies. Obviously, the words that a 
child needs to know how to spell are in the main the 
words that he uses in writing. While the words of 
the writing vocabulary are common to the hearing, 
speaking, and reading vocabularies, and while the 
growth of the writing vocabulary is probably by way of 
hearing or seeing to speaking and then to writing, the 
writing vocabulary does not by any means represent a 
random selection of words from the other groups; 
rather, it consists of a relatively small number of the 
words most useful to the child in expressing his own 
thoughts. To select words for spelling from the read- 
ing vocabulary, as is commonly done, may not result in 
very serious mistakes in the lower primary grades, but 
the principle leads to vicious consequences if carried far 
up in the grades. 

[3] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

The writing vocabulary found in the spontaneous 
compositions of children and adults. The restriction 
of the field of spelling material to the words actually 
used in writing makes the task of selecting words simple 
and definite. The words to be chosen for special drill 
in spelling are primarily the words found in the written 
compositions of children. This provides for the child's 
present spelling needs. But, since it is our duty to an- 
ticipate in a measure the growing needs of the child, we 
must teach him also the words that he will probably use 
as an adult. These are in all probability the words 
that adults now use, and are found in their written com- 
positions. In seeking to discover what words really 
form the child's vocabulary, only spontaneous composi- 
tions should be considered, for in literal reproductions 
large numbers of the unassimilated words of the text are 
certain to be brought into the written work. 

Common words only to he taken for special study. 
Not all the words that children use spontaneously are 
of equal importance for spelling purposes. In general 
the words vary in value as the frequency of use. That 
is, only the commonest words should be chosen for 
special study. In addition to the infrequent words, 
certain others should be omitted; namely, words of 
temporary use, words that are too easy, and words that 
are too difficult for children to learn to spell. For in- 
frequent, transient, and unusually difficult words the 
spelling should be indicated by the teacher when the 
word is required, or the children should use the diction- 
ary as the occasion demands. 

The advantages of taking the spelling material from 
the words most commonly used by children and adults 
in their spontaneous compositions are twofold : this pro- 
cedure does away with the necessity for the arbitrary 

[4] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

exercise of opinion, which teachers have found to be a 
very difficult task ; and it places the selecting of words 
upon a simple, natural, and matter-of-fact basis. 

Class word lists prepared by the teacher. A com- 
mon practice among teachers of making up word lists 
from the written work handed in from day to day is 
valuable only to the extent that the teacher succeeds in 
hitting upon the common words. It is doubtful if the 
teacher can do this for a large number of words. The 
practice is useful in the way of emphasizing local needs 
and special difficulties, but does not take the place of a 
list based upon extensive concrete investigations. 

The work of choosing the commonest words from a 
series of compositions, while simple and straightfor- 
ward, is exceedingly laborious and time-consuming, as 
any one who will undertake the task may discover for 
himself. To get typical results for a word list of any 
size, it is necessary to examine many thousands of run- 
ning words. Unless there is a large amount of clerical 
assistance, the work is likely to extend into years. 
This makes it practically impossible for each teacher to 
work out extensive lists of words for herself. Fortu- 
nately, we have a number of reputable and extensive 
investigations which make the task unnecessary. 

CONCRETE INVESTIGATIONS 

A minimum list of common words. For the purpose 
of reporting in this book, a comparative study was 
made of the six important investigations of the words 
commonly used by children and adults in their written 
compositions. These included: (1) the Jones list of 
4532 words selected from an examination of more than 
15,000,000 words in the themes of 1050 school children ; 
(2) the Smith list of 1125 words, consisting of the 

[5] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

commonest words in 75,000 running words in the spon- 
taneous compositions of the public school children of 
Madison, Wisconsin; (3) the Cook and O'Shea list, 
comprising 3200 of the most frequently used words in 
the compositions of thirteen adults; (4) the 1000 com- 
monest words found by W. E. Chancellor in letters re- 
ceived daily from many sources ; (5) a list of 3470 com- 
mon words compiled from many sources, including the 
list of Dr. Burk, prepared by C. K. Studley and Allison 
Ware; and (6) a list of 1000 words, prepared by Ayres 
by combining the results of four concrete studies. 

The combined results of these six investigations are . 
presented in Appendix B, which shows the words found 
in four or more studies. The total number of such 
words is 1254. This is the most reliable list of the 
words most commonly used by children and adults that 
can be made at the present time. The words may be 
taken as the minimum essentials of a course of study in 
spelling. In actual use it will be found necessary to 
supplement this list greatly. 

SPELLING BOOKS FREQUENTLY SHOW A POOR SELECTION 
OF WORDS 

Ayres 9 study of the N. E. A. lists. As compared 
with this and similar lists of words, what showing is 
made by the spellers in daily use by teachers? Atten- 
tion has already been called to the fact that cursory 
examination of many of the popular spelling books re- 
veals long lists of unusual words and technical terms 
taken indiscriminately from readers, histories, physiol- 
ogies, geographies, and the like. When more detailed 
comparisons are made, the disparity between the words 
of textbooks and the words selected on the basis of con- 
crete investigation appears more striking. On this 
[6] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

point Dr. Ayres reports a comparison of the words of 
the National Education Association spelling lists used 
in the famous Cleveland tests of 1908 with his study of 
the vocabularies of 2000 business and personal letters. 
The results of the comparison show that of the 414 
words of the National Education Association list, only 
125 were found in the 2000 letters analyzed, while 289, 
or 70 per cent of the words, did not appear even once. 

A study of thirteen common spellers. The author 
has made a study of thirteen spellers now in general 
use to determine what per cent of the words of these 
spellers are contained in (a) the 3324 words common to 
two or more of the six investigations reported above, 
and (b) all the 6250 different words found in the sev- 
eral investigations. The comparisons were based upon 
random selections of pages from the texts in two grades, 
IV and VII. The results show that on the average only 
19 per cent of the words in Grade VII are contained in 
the smaller list, and only 35 per cent are contained in 
the larger list. For Grade IV the corresponding fig- 
ures are 57 per cent and 74 per cent. That is to say, 
about four fifths of the words of Grade VII and two 
fifths of the words of Grade IV are not found in the list 
of 3324 words common to two or more of the six investi- 
gations; about two thirds of the words of Grade VII 
and one fourth of the words of Grade IV are not found 
even once in the 6250 words of the six different investi- 
gations. 

It is a significant fact, also, that spellers show little 
agreement among themselves in the words that they con- 
tain. In addition to Miss Arnold's results reported be- 
low, we have the statement of Cook and O'Shea * that of 
a total of 12,489 different words used in three spellers 

i Cook and O'Shea, The Child and His Spelling, 1914, page 226. 

m 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

only 1613, or less than 13 per cent, were common to 
all the spellers. 

The need for discrimination in choosing texts. The 
purpose of the author is not to discredit all the spellers 
in common use, but rather to suggest the need for care- 
ful discrimination in choosing texts, and to give a stand- 
ard of values which may be applied in the criticism of 
textbooks and courses of study. In spite of the poor 
selection of words, almost any speller will show some 
point of excellence. However, the desire to emphasize 
some one principle, such as the phonic relationship of 
words or the contextual presentation of words, should 
not lead to the exclusion or subordination of other im- 
portant factors. The need of the day is a good, well- 
balanced, practical speller. 

THE NUMBER OF WORDS TO BE TAUGHT 

Another inheritance from the past which still causes 
a great waste of time and energy is the practice of 
teaching an extremely large number of words. It is not 
difficult to find in current use spelling books containing 
six, eight, ten, and even fifteen thousand words. In or- 
der to meet the requirements of these voluminous texts 
it is found necessary to make the daily assignments cor- 
respondingly large, so that ten to twenty words are 
commonly given in a lesson. Facts now well substan- 
tiated fail to support this practice. 

The number of different words used in writing. 
There is not a great variety of words in the writing vo- 
cabularies of children and adults. Ay res 2 found that 
about nine words recur so frequently as to constitute 
one fourth of the whole number of words written, while 

2 Ayres, L. P., A Measuring ScaU for Ability in Spelling, 
1915, page 8. 

[8] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

about fifty words with their repetitions constitute one 
half of all the words we write. Jones 3 places the aver- 
age writing vocabulary of the eighth-grade child at 
about 2500 words. Another investigator states that 
the average number of words used by the high school 
graduate is not more than 4000. 

The number of words to be taught. Thus it appears 
that a writing vocabulary of 4000 or 5000 words is ade- 
quate for the most exacting and varied demands that 
are likely to be made upon the average child, and that 
the thorough teaching of 3000 to 3500 carefully selected 
words is about all that should be expected of the ele- 
mentary school; provided, that in addition the child is 
taught how and when to use the dictionary. With a 
smaller vocabulary to be taught the number of words 
per lesson may be reduced. 

THE GRADING OF WORDS 

The grading of words is a matter that is usually 
taken out of the hands of the teacher by the makers of 
textbooks and courses of study. Nevertheless, because 
of the direct bearing which the proper grading of words 
has upon the success of her own work, it is well for the 
teacher to consider the defects of the present practice 
and the more important facts and principles that point 
toward the probable solution of the problem. 

Assignment of words to grades. In common practice 
there is little agreement among textbook makers con- 
cerning the grades to which words belong. They dis- 
agree so widely as to put the same words in grades three 
to five years apart. Miss Arnold, who made a compar- 
ative study by grades of the entire vocabularies of five 

s Jones, W. F., Concrete Investigation of the Material of Eng- 
lish Spelling, 1914, pages 26-27. 

[9] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

of the leading spellers of the day, found " that not more 
than 19 per cent of the words in any one grade were 
common to more than two spellers, and that this per- 
centage ranged between 11 per cent and 19 per cent." 

Lack of principles of grading. Second, so far as can 
be discovered, no rational or scientific principles have 
been followed in the placing of words in grades. Ap- 
parently personal opinion and custom have largely con- 
trolled the matter. It would not be surprising if 
further investigation should show that as great mistakes 
have been made here as in the selection of words. 

The positive suggestions that can be offered as hav- 
ing a basis in experimental data must be tentative 
and few in number. More conclusive statements must 
await the further investigation and study of the words 
used by children, grade by grade. 

Decisive factors in grading. We are probably 
agreed that the use of the word is the most important 
factor in determining the grade in which it should be 
taught. The child should learn to spell words at ap- 
proximately the time that he is going to use them. 
The question of the difficulty of the word as a principle 
of grading is secondary to that of use. Naturally, a 
word should not be placed in a grade when it presents 
little or no difficulty. In general, a word should be 
placed in the grade where it is used and where it needs 
to be taught. 

Jones's investigation. Jones 4 is the only investi- 
gator who has made a detailed report of a concrete 
study of the words used by children in the several 
grades. He found the total number of different words 
in the writing vocabularies, grade by grade, and the 
average number of words per pupil. The striking re- 
4 Jones, W. F.j op. cit., pages 22-23. 

[10] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

suits of his study are the proportionately large number 
of different words used by second-grade children, — more 
than 1900 out of the 4500, — and the rapid growth of 
the pupils' vocabularies in the lower grades. The aver- 
age number of words per pupil increased from 521 in 
Grade II to 908 in Grade III, to 1235 in Grade IV, to 
1489 in Grade V, and to only 2135 in Grade VIII. 
When the total number of different words used in Grade 
II — 1900 — is compared with the average number of 
words per pupil in the same grade — 521 — it be- 
comes clear that there is great variety in the vocabu- 
laries of children of the same grade and that it is prac- 
tically impossible to teach all the words used by all the 
pupils. Just how frequently a word must be used be- 
fore it is to be taught in a spelling exercise is largely a 
matter of individual judgment. Jones places in Grade 
II, 524 words used by 50 per cent of the pupils; in 
Grade III, 655 additional words used by 40 per cent of 
the pupils, etc. When he comes to Grade VII, he in- 
cludes the words used by only 6 per cent of the pupils ; 
and in Grade VIII, the words used by only 2 per cent 
of the pupils. 

The study suggests that more emphasis might be 
placed upon spelling in the lower grades, where the 
children's writing vocabularies are increasing by leaps 
and bounds and where there is a relatively high degree 
of commonness among them, and that the formal work 
in spelling might take the form of independent study in 
the upper grades, where the commonness among chil- 
dren's vocabularies grows less and less and spelling be- 
comes to a considerable extent an individual problem. 

Peculiarities of word behavior, a factor. A complete 
and final solution of the problem of the grading of words 
must also take into consideration individual and type 

[ii] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

peculiarities of word behavior. Dr. Buckingham 5 sug- 
gests three types of words for special consideration: 
(1) Words that need not be taught at all. These were 
excluded in our original selection. (2) Words that ap- 
pear easy in the lower grades and hard in the upper. 
Such words, he suggests, may have been taught prema- 
turely in the lower grades. (3) Words that possess 
special difficulties for the middle grades, such as whose 
when the apostrophe is taught. 

THE GROUPING OF WORDS 

Can the mere grouping of words on the page or on 
the blackboard be made to increase the ease and readi- 
ness of learning the spelling of the words? What is the 
best method of arranging words in groups ? These are 
the problems of this section. 

Natural relationships between words. Perhaps some 
of us have had the experience of being bothered by the 
spelling of a particular word until all at once the diffi- 
culty was removed by the discovery of a similarity be- 
tween the spelling of the troublesome word and that of a 
simpler word already known to us. Thus it has been 
found that separate loses some of its difficulty if asso- 
ciated with parade, and that piece is not difficult if 
associated with niece. In a few cases even stronger 
associations may be made, such as hear with ear and 
eat with meat. In each case the inherent difficulty of 
the word is not affected. The mental lift comes from 
the association of two words having a common point of 
difficulty, one of which is known or has no confusing 
connections. 

Mistake in promiscuous grouping. The promiscu- 

-4* 5 Buckingham, B. R., Spelling Ability: Its Measurement and 

Distribution, 1913, page 112. 

[12] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

ous or chance order of grouping words not only fails 
to take advantage of these natural relationships be- 
tween words, but also makes possible the formation of 
accidental relationships in time and space which are a 
positive hindrance to learning. Arps 6 gives experi- 
mental evidence for the latter part of this statement and 
suggests that words be learned independent of associ- 
ates, unless such other associates form permanent and 
meaningful connections. 

The discovery by observation and experiment of the 
value of association in the learning of words suggests 
that larger use should be made of this principle in 
teaching than is made at the present time, and leads us 
to a consideration of the best methods of grouping 
words for pedagogical purposes. 

COMMON PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING WORDS 

A very brief study of the common textbooks in spell- 
ing will show that little attention is paid to the grouping 
of words outside of certain classes of nouns. A few 
texts that attempt to classify words usually follow 
either one or both, or some modification, of two general 
principles: (1) grouping according to associated 
meaning or use, and (2) grouping according to common 
structure and phonetic elements. 

Grouping by associated meaning or use. Outside of 
a possible increase of interest in the work, grouping 
words according to associated meaning or use has little 
pedagogical value. The relationship between the mean- 
ing and the spelling of words is very remote. To group 
words by it disregards the important means of associa- 

6 Arps, G. F., " Attitude as a Determinant in Spelling Efficiency 
in Immediate and Delayed Recall." Journal of Educational 
Psychology, VI, 1915, pages 409-418. 

[13] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

tion by sound and form. Furthermore, such grouping 
makes possible the formation of the accidental relation- 
ships which Arps found to interfere with the permanent 
learning of words. However, the advantages of this 
method may be secured by combining it with other 
methods of grouping, wherever possible. And words, 
principally nouns, that cannot be grouped in any other 
way may well be grouped according to their meaning 
or use. 

Grouping hy common structure and phonetic ele- 
ments. Grouping by common structure and phonetic 
elements is the best type of grouping that has been 
evolved in common practice. It has the value of empha- 
sizing the positive and vital relationships between words ; 
that is, of forming close associations between similarities 
of sound and form. Thus the bonds between piece and 
niece, separate and parade, are those of form and sound. 
Such similarities of large phonogrammic units should be 
emphasized wherever possible, especially the association 
of a hard word with an easier word or a better-known 
word. 

The value of this method of grouping in detail should 
not conceal its serious limitations as a general principle. 
These are: (1) It does not apply necessarily to words 
having minor phonetc likenesses, such as sound of let- 
ters or similar prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes and suf- 
fixes are usually phonetic in character and recur so 
often as to present little spelling difficulty. While there 
is, no doubt, a distinct advantage in calling attention to 
these common elements of words, the bonds of associa- 
tion are scarcely strong enough to justify grouping 
words upon this basis. (&) It is dangerous to apply 
to classes of words having similarities of sound only, 
such as new, gnu, knew. (3) It keeps separate many 

[14] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

words that might well be grouped together in learning. 
To illustrate, neither goes with either; but ceiling and 
deceive, which have identical points of difficulty — the 
ei sounded as e — would be excluded from the group ac- 
cording to our principle of grouping. (4) The words 
to which it applies effectively, although important, are 
limited in number. 

The lack of adjustment to pedagogical uses, charac- 
teristic of this method of grouping words according to 
their common structure and phonetic elements, is trace- 
able to its origin. It is based fundamentally upon lin- 
guistic, philological principles and depends for its use- 
fulness upon the constancy of the relationships between 
the form and the sound of words, a constancy which, 
unfortunately, does not exist in our language to any 
considerable extent. 

GROUPING WORDS ACCORDING TO A COMMON 
DIFFICULTY 

What is needed, evidently, is a principle of grouping 
that is fundamentally pedagogical in character, that is, 
a principle based upon the economy and hygiene of 
learning, and broad enough to include all classes of 
words. The principle which seems to meet most of the 
conditions of this test is that of grouping words accord- 
ing to a common difficulty. This principle focuses 
attention upon the difficult parts of words, thereby 
making for economy of teaching; it develops effective 
bonds of association; and it applies to 90 per cent of 
the words that possess real spelling difficulty, and to a 
very large per cent of all the words that we use. The 
words grouped according to their common structure 
and phonetic elements come naturally under this head. 
So also do certain groups of words having common 

[15] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

prefixes or suffixes, such as the confusing ance and ence 
groups. 

Wagner's experiment. The experimental determina- 
tion of the value of this plan of grouping was made by 
Dr. Wagner 7 of the University of Pennsylvania, who 
compared the growth in ability of two sixth-grade 
classes. In one class the words were classified accord- 
ing to a common difficulty and special attention was 
called to the words of the group. In the other class 
the words were presented in a chance order. In ten 
learning lessons the class following the grouping method 
showed a greater gain, amounting to about 20 per cent, 
or 1.1 times the improvement of the ordinary class as 
calculated by the author. The conclusion is : Group- 
ing words into lessons according to spelling difficulty is 
better than the ordinary plan of spelling lessons. It 
secures better daily lessons, better final results, and 
greater steadiness or constancy of correct spelling. 
Further investigations should be made to establish be- 
yond question the value of this method of grouping. 

Use by the teacher. The task of working out de- 
tailed classifications for any considerable number of 
words according to a common difficulty must be left to 
makers of textbooks. Nevertheless, the alert teacher 
will find many opportunities for using this principle in 
her daily work. They arise in almost every lesson. 
Two words of the lesson having similar difficulties may 
be associated in learning, or the hard word of the 
lesson may be connected with a word previously learned. 
Groups or families of words having common difficulties 
may be built up from day to day, such as the ie, ei, ate, 
ait, and aight groups. This work presupposes, of 

7 Wagner, C. A., Experimental Study of Grouping by Similarity 
as a Factor in the Teaching of Spelling, 1912. 

[16] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

course, some knowledge on the part of the teacher of 
the common types of errors. If the teacher does not 
already possess such information, she may learn much 
from a little systematic observation of the written work 
of children. The omission and the insertion of silent 
letters and the confusion of vowels will soon stand out 
as the chief kinds of errors. These two classes consti- 
tute three fourths of the errors that children make. 

HOMONYMS 

The " together " versus the " separate " method of 
presentation. The grouping of a particular class of 
words, homonyms, deserves special consideration. The 
time-honored dispute is whether words of this class are 
to be taught together or separately. Unfortunately, 
the experimental investigation of the problem leaves the 
decision still in doubt. 

Pearson's investigation. Mr. Pearson's investiga- 
tion, 8 conducted under carefully controlled conditions 
at the Horace Mann School, showed a definite arith- 
metical superiority of the " together " method. These 
results were corroborated when the same experiment 
was performed under substantially the same conditions 
in the Montclair, New Jersey, public schools. Yet the 
proper interpretation of the results is held in question 
even by Mr. Pearson, who says that owing to the in- 
equality in difficulty of the words it is impossible to say 
with confidence whether the together method is really 
superior to the separate method. 

Confusion in common theory and practice. In com- 
mon practice and in the general treatments of the peda- 

» Pearson, H. C, "The Scientific Study of the Teaching of 
Spelling." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. II, 1911, 
pages 241-252. 

[if] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

gogy involved, a somewhat similar confusion is ob- 
served. Some teachers and authors favor one method ; 
some, the other method. However, the balance of opin- 
ion and practice seems to favor the separate method of 
grouping. This diversity of opinion and practice is 
doubtless traceable to a number of causes, but one fact 
seems to stand out from the rest. This is the common 
failure to discriminate between the use of the two meth- 
ods for the original and the subsequent presentation of 
words. It is quite possible that the peculiar value of 
each method has been overlooked. 

Jones's suggestion. In his now famous investigation 
Jones made the pertinent observation that homonyms 
do not usually appear in the child's writing vocabulary 
at the same time ; that, in fact, they often appear years 
apart. If this is actually the case, then the separate 
presentation of words in the order in which they appear 
would seem to be the natural and simple method. An- 
other bit of evidence pointing in the same direction is 
the common adult experience of a sudden awareness that 
two words of this class have lodged in the mind for some 
time without our consciousness of the fact and without 
any confusion in use. 

The superior value of the separate method was estab- 
lished, according to Jones, by experiments in the teach- 
ing of homonyms in the University of South Dakota. 
Unfortunately, these experiments were not published, 
so that it is impossible to judge of their worth. 

Conclusion. The best statement, in my opinion, that 
we can make at the present time is that as far as pos- 
sible, in initial presentation, homonyms should be taught 
separately ; but when they appear together, in the same 
grade, or when they have been confused by the pupil, 
they should be taught together. 
[18] 



THE SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS 

Our general principle of grouping, also, is applicable 
to the teaching of homonyms. Members of pairs should 
be associated where possible with other words having 
similarities of form and sound; e. g., deer with cheer; 
dear with hear and tear; waste with haste; and piece 
with niece. 

The principles of teaching homonyms are largely the 
same as the principles of teaching other words, except 
that more emphasis must be placed upon the develop- 
ment of the meaning and the use of the words. 

SUMMARY 

1. The spelling lists with which tradition has pro- 
vided us contain many words of infrequent use and 
unusual difficulty. 

2. Economy of time and effort in teaching demands 
a vitalized spelling list, consisting of the words which 
occur commonly in the writing of children and adults. 

3. A number of reliable investigations provide us 
with a minimum list of such words. 

4. Spelling books frequently show a poor selection 
of words. Careful discrimination in choice of texts is 
necessary. 

5. As shown by repeated investigation, the number 
of words to be taught need not be large, — 3000 to 
3500 words. 

6. There is little agreement among authors of text- 
books on the theory and practice of grading words. 

7. The most satisfactory rule seems to be, to place 
the word in the grade where it is used, and where it 
needs to be taught. 

8. The chance grouping of words fails to take ad- 
vantage of the natural relationships of words. 

9. Grouping by associated meaning or use, and 

[19] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

grouping by common structure and phonetic elements, 
emphasize relationships which are not essentially vital 
or which are limited in applicability. 

10. Grouping according to a common difficulty is a 
principle which appears to meet our needs. It is funda- 
mentally pedagogical in character, and broad enough to 
include all classes of words. 

11. Experimental investigation still leaves in doubt 
the question of the best method of teaching homonyms. 

12. Possibly each method has a peculiar value: the 
" separate " method, in initial presentation ; and the 
" together " method, when words have been confused by 
the pupil. 



[20] 



CHAPTER TWO 

PRELIMINARY TESTING FOR WORD DIFFICULTY 

A SSIGNING lessons versus teaching. The conspic- 
^M> uous fault in the past teaching of spelling was the 
absence of any serious effort of the kind we are accus- 
tomed to associate with the teaching of other subjects. 
Spelling was not taught at all in the sense that other 
school subjects were taught. This was not for lack of 
time, for spelling received its due proportion of time 
and frequently more than its due proportion. But 
methods and devices for improving spelling efficiency 
received scant attention on the part of teachers. The 
type of teaching prevailing is familiar to all. It con- 
sisted primarily of the assignment of " the next ten 
words." Some of the more difficult words may have 
been pronounced and, possibly, defined ; then the pupils 
were directed to " study your lesson." Parentheti- 
cally, we may notice that work of this sort presupposed 
greater skill on the part of the pupil in studying than 
the teacher showed in teaching. It has been recognized 
for a long time that there are right methods and wrong 
methods of teaching arithmetic, geography, history, 
and most of the other common school subjects, but a 
pedagogy of spelling is a recent acquisition. 

This attitude toward spelling may be explained by 
the apparent simplicity of the subject. Spelling, more 
than any other subject, may be divided into units of 
supposedly uniform size and constituency and parceled 
out to pupils to be learned by their own undirected 
efforts. Again, to the casual observation of teachers, 
the appearance of words does not suggest enough differ- 
ence in kind and degree of difficulty to show the need of 

[21] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

a variety of methods of presentation. But the teach- 
ing of no subject is simple. Recent scientific investiga- 
tion shows that spelling, like handwriting, presents 
many confusing alternatives in the way of method, and 
that mere conjecture upon the subject will not lead us 
very far. Fortunately, these facts have been grad- 
ually coming home to teachers, and they are now mak- 
ing as serious a study of the teaching of spelling as they 
have made of the teaching of other subjects. 

Steps in the teaching of words. In the process of 
teaching words, as carried on in the classroom, there are 
several distinguishable steps into which the work natu- 
rally falls. These steps roughly form the basis for the 
organization of the material of the succeeding chapters. 
They are: preliminary testing for word difficulty, pres- 
entation of words and class study, independent study 
by the pupil, or drill, testing, the correction of errors, 
and reviews. 

The need for word study. The unsatisfactory re- 
sults of much of our work in the teaching of spelling 
have been due to our ignorance of the material with 
which we deal. We have already seen that this is true 
in the selection and classification of words. In that 
connection we found it necessary to consider what words 
should be selected for teaching, in what grades they 
should be placed, the particular spelling difficulty of 
words, the grouping of words on the basis of their com- 
mon difficulties, and the grouping of a particular class 
of words, homonyms. Ignorance of the material is 
equally a handicap in the teaching of words. We must 
determine the relative difficulty of words, the particular 
parts of words that present spelling difficulty, the words 
that should be kept apart and the words that should be 
placed together in teaching, the kinds and classes of 

[22] 



PRELIMINARY TESTING FOR WORD DIFFICULTY 

errors, the frequency with which different classes of 
words should be reviewed, and the value of words in 
marking. All of this means a more careful study and 
analysis of the words that we teach in spelling. 

In concluding his thesis on Spelling Ability: Its 
Measurement and Distribution (1913, page 112), Dr. 
Buckingham says : " If this study does no more than 
show the need of word criticism and indicate a method, 
it may be worth while. Every school affords a place 
and every day a time at which something may be done 
to help throw light on the nature of the material we 
deal with in spelling." 

Significance for the teacher of the unequal difficulty 
of words. One of the commonest consequences of the 
lack of careful word study is the failure to discriminate 
in teaching between words of unequal difficulty. To 
illustrate: if five words are to be taught in a period of 
20 minutes, the teacher will spend approximately 4 
minutes on each word, or she will have the children re- 
peat or copy each word the same number of times. In 
marking, also, each word is given the same weight. It 
is true that some exceptions to the rule may be noticed, 
such as keeping individual and class word lists, and 
throwing out written work that contains one misspelled 
word from a given list of the most commonly misspelled 
words. These so-called best practices of the day are 
but incidental and detached illustrations of a principle 
as yet imperfectly recognized. 

Evidence of the unequal difficulty of words. The 
fact of the unequal difficulty of words has been proved 
by Thorndike, Buckingham, and others. Professor 
Thorndike 1 shows that for six words taken from a fifth- 

iSee Buckingham, B. R., Spelling Ability: Its Measurement 
and Distribution, 1913, page 2. 

[23] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

grade test, errors were made as follows : disappoint, 37 ; 
necessary, 42 ; changeable, 42 ; better, 3 ; because, 1 ; 
picture, 0. Additional evidence may be obtained by 
any teacher who cares to take the trouble to give a 
test of such words as occur in the daily lessons and to 
set down the number of times each word is misspelled. 
A sample of what may be expected in such a test is given 
in Plan I, Appendix A. The words were selected from 
a well-known speller. The results, given in the second 
column, show that in a class of 44 pupils some words 
were missed only once, while others were missed as many 
as 22 and 36 times. 

Use to be made of this knowledge. The fact of the 
unequal difficulty of words is no longer held in doubt. 
The only question that remains is, what use is to be 
made of this knowledge? Thorndike, Buckingham, 
Starch, and other investigators have been interested in 
the inequality of word difficulty for the purpose of 
establishing standard tests and scales with which to 
attain greater precision in the marking and measuring 
of the spelling efficiency of school children. These in- 
struments have greatly facilitated the work of adminis- 
tration and supervision, but they have benefited the 
teacher only indirectly. 

The knowledge of the unequal difficulty of words is 
quite as significant for the proper teaching of words as 
for the testing of pupils. Teaching which disregards 
differences amounting to 80 per cent in the spelling 
difficulty of words is bound to result in the waste of 
time and effort. Practically, it means that some words 
are overlearned, while the drill on others stops short of 
mastery. There is waste in either instance. In the 
latter case, the words poorly learned are quickly for- 
gotten. A knowledge of the relative difficulty of the 

[24] 



PRELIMINARY TESTING FOR WORD DIFFICULTY 

words of the lesson will enable the teacher so to dis- 
tribute her time and energy that each word will receive 
its due proportion. 

THE DETERMINATION OF THE DIFFICULTY OF WORDS IN 
DAILY PRACTICE 

The present unreliability of teachers' judgments. 
The next step is to get a practicable plan for deter- 
mining the difficulty of words in daily practice. Up to 
this time two possible plans have appeared as the result 
of schoolroom experience and experimental study. The 
first one is to leave the matter to the judgment of the 
individual teacher. Bearing upon this attractively 
simple plan Dr. Buckingham 2 makes the pertinent re- 
mark : " Whatever may be the value of a consensus of 
many individuals, the trustworthiness of the judgment 
of a single teacher appears to be of almost no value." 
Again, he says : " The results of this study sufficiently 
indicate the present unreliability of individual judg- 
ments unless the list is very short and the judgments are 
very numerous." The results of my study of the judg- 
ments of some twenty-five teachers support the conclu- 
sions of Dr. Buckingham to a considerable degree. 
Therefore, it would seem that the untutored judgment 
of the individual teacher is too inaccurate and variable 
to be relied upon in this important matter. 

The present use of standard scores impracticable. 
The other suggestion is to use standard scores and lists 
of words grouped according to their degrees of diffi- 
culty. For example, five words taken from column 
" L" of the Ayres scale might be subjected to the same 
amount of drill on the assumption that they are, as it 
is claimed, of equal difficulty. Apart from theoretical 
2 Buckingham, B. R., op. cit., pages 70, 75. 

[25] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

objections to using word lists graded according to diffi- 
culty rather than according to frequency of use, there 
are several important practical difficulties. In the first 
place, comparatively few of the words of any particular 
course of study have been standardized; and, in the 
second place, while such standardized scores may be 
accurate as an average of a large number of classes, 
they probably fall far short of representing the real 
difficulty of the words for any particular class. We 
have found this to be the case with words taken from 
the Ayres scale. 

A suggested plan. Any plan for determining word 
difficulty must be accurate and practicable. That is, 
it must be workable; it must be objective, based upon 
actual spelling of children ; and it must fit the condi- 
tions and needs of a particular class. 

Such a plan has been used in the author's school 
for two years, and in several other schools to his 
knowledge. A typical weekly lesson plan for Grade VI 
is given in Appendix A, Plan I. It provides for a 
preliminary test of the words for a week on the Friday 
preceding the week in which the words are to be taught. 
The words are dictated to the children; then spelled 
back to the children for correction; finally, the teacher 
determines the number of errors for each word by a 
show of hands and enters the figure after each word on 
her record sheet. Thus her work for the week is laid 
out. By comparison with the " number present," the 
figures give some notion of the degree of difficulty of 
the several words and show the teacher the relative em- 
phasis that should be laid on each word. After each 
day's lesson a similar test is given and the figures are 
entered in the appropriate column. If the teaching is 
thorough, there should be few errors or none in the 

[26] 



PRELIMINARY TESTING FOR WORD DIFFICULTY 

daily test. If the teaching has been well proportioned, 
the words will have about the same number of mistakes. 
When a word is found to have too many errors, it is 
carried over into the next day's lesson and treated as 
before. The plan provides also for a review lesson of 
all the words of the week on Friday, with a record of 
errors ; and finally, a test without study after two weeks. 
The last is to get some evidence on the timing of re- 
views and may be varied as necessity demands. The use 
of this plan shows the teacher how to distribute her time 
and effort among the words of the lesson and gives her 
effective and repeated checks upon the efficiency of her 
work. Teachers who have used the plan find that they 
take no more time for spelling than before, — 15 to 20 
minutes per day. The plan is suggested here for what 
it is worth as one that has been tried and used with 
some degree of success in actual classroom work. 
There is a possible source of weakness in the nearness 
of the preliminary test to the presentation of the words. 
This may be remedied by giving more words at a time in 
the preliminary test and by lengthening the interval 
between the two steps. 

INTERPRETING PERCENTILE DIFFERENCES IN TERMS OF 
AMOUNT OF DIFFERENCE 

Actual differences in the difficulty of words. One 
thing yet remains to give the teacher the power to dis- 
tribute her time effectively among the words of the les- 
son ; namely, an interpretation of the differences in per- 
centages of incorrect spelling in terms of differences of 
amount, expressed by the number of times one word is 
harder than another. For example, how many times 
harder is a word misspelled by 98 per cent of a class 
than a word misspelled by only 2 per cent? If the 

[27] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

first word is 10 times harder than the second, then it 
should receive 10 times the effort in teaching. The 
opinion of teachers, which in this matter can amount 
to little more than a guess, is far from the real fact. 
The average estimate of several groups of teachers was 
that a word misspelled by 98 per cent of the pupils is 
about 20 times as hard as a word misspelled by only 2 
per cent. Some individual estimates were as high as 28 
per cent. The fact is that the true difference in diffi- 
culty between a word which all the class can spell and 
a word which practically no one of the class can spell 
is not more than 5 times. It ranges between 5 times in 
Grade III and 2 times in Grade VIII. This difference, 
while small as compared with estimates of teachers, is 
nevertheless large enough to affect appreciably the 
teaching of the words. 

TABLE I 



Ratios of 


Word 


Difficulty Based upon Percentages 


OF 






Incorrect Spelling 








Num- 
ber 


Ratios 


Per cent 














incorrect 


of 
P. C. 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


100-97 


4 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


10 


96-89 


8 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


9 


88-73 


16 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


72-51 


22 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


50-29 


22 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


7 


28-13 


16 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


12- 5 


8 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 


4- 1 


4 


2 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 



The Use of Table I. Ratios of word difficulty for 

Grades III to VIII are given in Table I. The figures 

represent the proportionate amount of time and effort 

that words of the several degrees of difficulty should re- 

[28] 



PRELIMINARY TESTING FOR WORD DIFFICULTY 

ceive. For example, in the third grade, if a word 
spelled incorrectly by 100-97 per cent of the pupils 
is repeated 10 times, then a word misspelled by 96-89 
per cent of the pupils should be repeated 9 times ; a 
word misspelled by 88-73 per cent of the pupils, 8 
times, etc. The teacher who will fix the ratios for her 
grade in mind will have a rough yardstick by which the 
relative difficulty of the words in the day's lesson may 
readily be measured and her time and effort appor- 
tioned accordingly. 

The statement in percentages, in the first column of 
the table, of the distribution of words incorrectly spelled 
need not cause trouble. They can be converted into 
actual number of mistakes for any class by dividing each 
percentage in turn by the part, approximately taken, 
that the number of the pupils in the class is of 100. 
Thus, for a class of 48 pupils, divide by 2 ; the groups 
under " Per cent incorrect " become 50-48, 48-44, 
44—36, etc., actual number of words misspelled. 

Justification of intensive work in determining the dif- 
ficulty of words. This intensive work in determining 
the relative difficulty of words and in distributing time 
and effort in spelling upon the basis thereof is made pos- 
sible by a better selection of words, by the teaching of 
a smaller number of words, and by a more effective use 
of the time given to spelling. Formerly, each recurring 
storm of popular criticism of the ineffectiveness of the 
public school in preparing children for the demands of 
ordinary business and college life was met by increas- 
ing the amount of time devoted to spelling, until it was 
discovered that, as spelling was then taught, the amount 
of time spent made little or no difference in the quality 
of the spelling product. Denied this dubious expedient 
for increasing the spelling efficiency of our pupils, it 

[29] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

would seem that our only recourse is to a more intensive 
development of the resources at hand, involving a refine- 
ment of our methods of selecting and teaching words. 

SUMMARY 

1. Testing spelling has given way to the teaching of 
spelling. 

2. Improvement in method depends primarily upon a 
more systematic word study. 

3. Inequality in the difficulty of words is abundantly 
proved by observation and experiment. 

4. The relative difficulty of the words of the lesson is 
the basis for distributing time and effort. 

5. For determining word difficulty the judgment of 
individual teachers is too inaccurate and too variable 
to be relied upon. 

6. The use of lists of standardized words is unsatis- 
factory. 

7. The only practicable way of obtaining reliable in- 
formation is the use of a preliminary test. 

8. Average word difficulties expressed in per cent 
may be converted into figures showing the number of 
times one word is harder than another by the use of 
Table I. 



[30] 



CHAPTER THREE 

The Psychological Basis of Spelling 

THE ultimate aim in the teaching of spelling is to 
give the individual such control over the ordering 
of letters in words that the expression of thought in 
writing may go on freely and accurately, without atten- 
tion to mechanical details. In short, it is the automatic 
control of the means of written expression. This is 
the standard by which the teacher selects and judges 
her methods of teaching; it is the goal to which she 
directs her efforts. An analysis and description of the 
mental processes involved in this intimate relation be- 
tween thought and the written word, and a description 
of the steps by which it is reached, is the task of the 
psychology of spelling. 

MENTAL IMAGERY 

Visual and auditory images. Our knowledge of word 
forms, like all other knowledge, comes to use through 
the senses. We do not taste or smell words, and people 
in possession of their full powers do not come to know 
words through the sense of touch; but we do see and 
hear words. All word forms that pass into the mind 
must take one of these routes, the eye or the ear. So 
entering, they form pictures in the mind and as such 
are retained. 

Motor images. Word pictures are not all of the 
visual and auditory sort. Words are spoken and writ- 
ten as well as seen and heard. The former as well as 
the latter form distinct impressions on the mind, which 
we call mental images. Unlike merely hearing and see- 
ing a word, the oral or written spelling of it brings into 

[31] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

play definite sets of muscles. In oral spelling the mus- 
cles of the throat are at work; in written spelling, the 
muscles of the hand and arm. It is claimed that in the 
writing process at least 150 muscles are involved. 
These muscular movements are recorded in the brain, 
forming the basis for motor images of words. These 
motor images are explained thus : the oral or written 
spelling of a word involves a definite and specific series 
of adjustments of the muscles of the throat or hand; 
the same series of movements is called into play every 
time the word is spelled, so that by repeated use a par- 
ticular series of movements comes to be associated with 
a particular word; just as no two words look alike to 
the eye or sound alike to the ear, so no two words feel 
alike to the throat or hand; that is to say, each word 
comes to be associated with a certain distinct kines- 
thetic image of the arm or throat in making a particular 
series of movements, thus attaining a motor individ- 
uality of its own. 

The part that motor images play in learning spell- 
ing is a significant one. When the series of movements 
for each word has become completely established 
through frequent use, as in the writing of common 
words, we no longer need to think of individual letters 
as we did in the original learning. One nervous im- 
pulse is sufficient for the whole word. The thought of 
the word or of wanting to spell the word sets the ma- 

r chinery in motion and the word, as we say, spells itself. 

. It is through the service of motor images that spelling 
is finally made automatic. Motor imagery aids also in 
forming clearer visual and auditory images, in the way 
that expression strengthens impression. \ In writing, 
the eye, by following the point of the pen, gets a de- 
tailed and accurate impression of the word each time the 
[32] 



THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF SPELLING 

word is repeated. Finally, motor images serve as addi- 
tional bonds of association in the learning of words. 

Mental images of spelling words should not be con- 
fused with mental images of words involved in hearing, 
speaking, and reading. The processes of hearing, 
speaking, and reading words involve mental images of a 
different sort from those used in spelling. They are 
images of whole words, while the imagery immediately 
involved in the spelling of words is the imagery of the 
order of letters. The peculiar task of spelling is to 
associate with pictures of whole words, which are al- 
ready a part of the child's experience, detailed images of 
the order of letters. 

Preferred kinds of imagery. In learning the spelling 
of words it is possible to employ several kinds of word 
pictures. From our previous discussion it is clear that 
such pictures must include the eye or the ear on the one 
hand, and the throat or the hand on the other. With 
the eye may be associated movements of hand, throat, 
or both hand and throat. The same is true of the ear. 
Also, the eye and ear together may be associated with 
movements of hand, throat, or hand and throat. While, 
theoretically at least, there are nine possibilities in the 
combination of word images, certain combinations are 
preferred to others. In general the e}^e is preferred 
to the ear, and the throat and hand, while of no prac- 
tical value for independent use, are a direct and positive 
aid to either eye or ear. 

Individual differences in imagery. While this is true, 
speaking generally, the preferred type of imagery is yet 
more or less an individual matter. Common observa- 
tion shows that there are some persons to whom the 
natural method of verifying the spelling of a word is to 
spell it orally to themselves ; others must see the word 

[33] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

before them; while still others must write the word. 
That is, people naturally employ different kinds of 
imagery in doing the same kind of mental work. At 
least three types stand out ; namely, visual, auditory, 
and motor. Of the last, two types are distinguishable, 
speech-motor and hand-motor. The practical implica- 
tion of this fact is that methods of teaching do not have 
the same value for all children. They vary for differ- 
ent individuals according as they are favorable or un- 
favorable to the dominant type of learning. The best 
method of presentation is a matter of getting for each 
person the right combination of the processes that may 
enter. 

ORDER OF MENTAL PROCESSES IN LEARNING SPELLING! 

The exact mental processes employed in spelling have 
been made the subject of experimentation by trained 
observers. As nearly as they have been determined, 
these processes appear to be as follows : x Preliminary 
to the spelling exercise, ideas have been associated with 
auditory, visual, and speech-motor images of whole 
words. The first step in spelling is to get a clear, accu- 
rate mental picture of the whole word in visual, audi- 
tory, and speech-motor form. These are already 
closely associated in the mind, so strong is the connec- 
tion between the perception and the oral expression of 
words. For example, it is said that in silent reading, 
instead of the idea being associated directly with the 
written symbol, the written symbol calls up the speech- 
motor image of the word and the latter calls up the 
idea. In the second step the word is broken up into 
syllables. With the clear visual imagery of the sylla- 

i See Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology of Special Dis- 
ability in Spelling, pages 79-80. 

[34] 



THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF SPELLING 

ble, it is usually pronounced. With the visual and 
speech-motor-auditory image of the syllable is associ- 
ated a visual image of the letters in order. The visual 
image of the order of letters is associated with the 
throat movements necessary to spell the word orally, 
and the hand movements necessary to write the word. 

Individual variations. From our knowledge of men- 
tal types, we do not expect these processes to be the 
same for all pupils. For example, a pupil leaning 
strongly toward ear-mindedness might associate the 
letters of a syllable directly with the sound of the syl- 
lable, without having the accompanying visual image. 

Ordinary adult observers may fail to discover each 
of the steps in their own conscious experience. As 
learning approaches the stage of habituation, the tend- 
ency is for the written form to become more and more 
directly connected with the idea, due to the dropping 
out of some of the intermediate steps. The mental 
processes involved are best shown in the recall of a for- 
gotten word or in the learning of a new word. Even 
here they are somewhat obscured by the intervention 
of familiar parts of words, such as common phono- 
grams. 

Importance of the syllable. Another fact needs to 
be emphasized. A great many words, nearly all poly- 
syllabic words, contain too many separate letters to be 
taken in by the eye at one glance, as is necessary for a 
detailed and accurate mental picture. The perception 
span is from three to five distinct objects. Therefore, 
the syllable is important in learning, since it at once 
divides the word into a number of perceivable units and 
at the same time makes possible a clear, definite, de- 
tailed picture of the letters. 

[35] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



SPELLING AS HABIT FORMATION 

Spelling, as we have seen, involves the association of 
mental images of words. Learning of this kind, which 
has in it less of thought, variety of content, and orig- 
inality, and more of the repetition of certain set forms 
or movements, is learning of the habit-formation type. 
It consists primarily of the association of certain arbi- 
trary symbols, and then of practice in making these 
symbols until they can be made automatically, or 
" without thinking " about them. The emphasis in 
learning is upon exercise and effect. The principles 
for the formation of habit are vivid picturing, attentive 
repetition, and automatic control. These principles 
represent also the steps or stages of learning. 

Vivid picturing. The ease of habit formation de- 
pends in the first place upon the strength of the mental 
push with which the child is started. Vivid word pic- 
tures, like vivid experiences of an unusual and thrilling 
nature, such as an automobile accident, make lasting 
impressions on the mind. The strength of the impres- 
sion, as in other phases of learning, depends largely 
upon the child's interest. Therefore ways and means 
of adding interest and enthusiasm to the work are an 
important consideration for the teacher. To add vivid- 
ness, the word under investigation may be made to stand 
out from other words by letting it assert its individual- 
ity. We do this by picking out the common elements 
of the word, by pointing out its peculiar difficulties, by 
associating it with other words of similar form, and by 
a variety of other devices that will appear in succeeding 
pages. Further, the strength of the image will be in- 
creased by appealing to the pupil's dominant type of 
word imagery. If a child is visual-minded, then visual 
[36] 



THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF SPELLING 

presentation is better for him ; if ear-minded, then audi- 
tory presentation will have the most lasting effect. 
Since visual learners are in the majority, visual presen- 
tation should be the basic method. Lastly, variety of 
presentation is equally important. There is no such 
condition as pure ear-mindedness or pure eye-minded- 
ness. A child may be more strongly inclined toward 
one mode of imaging than another, but all modes are 
present to some degree. Therefore all methods of pres- 
entation will be effective to some extent. The effect 
of variety will be a multiplicity of appeal which we 
recognize as an important principle in learning. More- 
over, a variety of methods of presentation is necessary 
to provide for the children who belong to the excep- 
tional imaginal types, the ear-minded and the motor- 
minded individuals. 

Attentive repetition. There is a period of learning 
between the first clear picturing of the word and the use 
of the word freely in expressing thought when the child 
must focus his attention and effort definitely upon fixing 
the image of the word in mind. This is the beginning 
of the drill or practice stage in learning. In order to 
be effective this first drill work must be accompanied 
by a high degree of attention. Otherwise, not only 
will there be little improvement, as is shown by studies 
of the curve of learning by Book, Bryan and Harter, 
and others, but also through carelessness mistakes will 
be made, the correction of which will require the expen- 
diture of additional time and energy. A good example 
of what a drill should not be is seen in the old " assign- 
ing lessons " method of teaching. Frequently the child, 
in a spirit of any-way-to-get-through-with-it, wrote the 
word the prescribed number of times, with increasing 
illegibility if not inaccuracy. The formal demands of 

[ 37 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

the teacher were scrupulously complied with, but the 
result was an increasingly distorted if not actually erro- 
neous mental picture of the word. It is not mechanical 
repetition, but repetition with attention, that facilitates 
the process of habit formation. 

As in case of the original presentation of words, 
attention is to a considerable extent a condition of the 
child's interest in the work, and time spent in making 
spelling significant and attractive to children in the 
long run will be time well spent. Equally important is 
the active direction of the beginning drill work by the 
teacher. Only thus may the teacher be sure of the 
active attention of the children. This work is often 
closely associated with the presentation of the word 
and is a regular part of class study. The drill should 
be short, spirited, varied. 

Value of trial recall. In this phase of the work the 
child not only is shown the word or told how to spell it, 
but also is allowed to spell it by himself. Active recall 
is better than additional presentation from without. 
This is a helpful way of securing close attention and 
forms the connection in the way in which it will be 
used. Such recall, also, shows the child when he does 
not know a word and allows him to distribute his time 
among the different words of the lesson according as 
they are easy or difficult. 

Automatic control. There is no abrupt break be- 
tween attentive repetition and automatic control. 
With repetition and use there is a gradually decreasing 
amount of attention, and consequently more and more 
automaticity. The mind is increasingly freed from the 
necessity of directing the ordering of letters and is left 
free to follow the thought. But for most persons per- 
fection of skill is never realized in spelling even the com- 
[38] 



THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF SPELLING 

monest words. The more we become absorbed in 
thought and composition, the less sure we are of the 
spelling of words ; rather, the surer we are of incorrect 
spellings. Few of us would want a first draft turned 
over to the printer. Yet for practical purposes we 
may regard a word as learned when it is used freely and 
with a high degree of accuracy in ordinary composition, 
such as letter writing ; and, when attention is especially 
directed to spelling, as in going over a sheet a second 
time, misspellings are readily detected and corrected. 

The power of automatic or habitual spelling of words 
is developed by frequent repetitions of words in special 
drills or as they occur in ordinary composition. It is 
not a power which is fully developed in the school or 
which ends with the school. It increases with use 
throughout life. 

SUMMARY 

1. The control over written word forms is attained 
through the medium of mental images. 

2. The more common kinds of images are: visual, 
auditory, speech-motor, and hand-motor. 

3. In general the eye impression is stronger than the 
ear impression, and combinations of the throat and 
hand with the eye or the ear are distinctly preferable 
to either eye or ear, alone. 

4. Individuals vary considerably both in the particu- 
lar kinds and the particular combinations of images 
natural to them. 

5. There are four " types " of learners, correspond- 
ing to the four modes of imagery. 

6. The processes involved in learning spelling in- 
clude: the association of the heard, spoken, and seen 
forms of the word with the meaning of the word; the 

[39] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

N visualization of the word by syllables; the association 
of the visual images of the syllables with the sounds of 
the syllables ; association of the visual image of the 
order of letters with the visual and the speech-motor- 
auditory images of the syllables ; and association of the 
speech-motor and hand-motor images of the order of 
letters with the visual image of the order of letters. 

7. The psychological principles involved in learning 
are vivid picturing, attentive repetition, and automatic 
control. 



[40] 



CHAPTER FOUR 

The Presentation of Words 

general principles suggested by psychology 

THE only value in a discussion of the psychology of 
spelling is in the practical suggestions that may 
be offered for the formulation of a method of teaching. 
A practical method of teaching is our goal. Let us 
now see how far toward this goal our discussion has 
taken us. 

Psychological principles of presentation. We have 
found as general principles that visual presentation is 
superior to auditory presentation and that the effec- 
tiveness of either is increased by oral and written spell- 
ing. The successive steps of presentation appear to 
be: the close association of the visual, auditory, and 
speech-motor forms of the whole word with the meaning 
of the word; the visual and auditory presentation of 
the word in syllables ; the pronunciation of the word by 
syllables with a clear visual analysis of the letters of 
the syllables ; the written and oral spelling of the word. 1 
Individual differences in types of learning demand a 
varying emphasis upon the learning exercises. Finally, 
the outstanding principles of learning spelling are the 
clear, vivid picturing of the word in whole and in part, 
the attentive repetition of the word, and the frequent 
use of the word in drill and practice until it is spelled 
automatically. 

The pedagogy of spelling more than a statement of 
psychological principles. The contribution of psychol- 
ogy is important in the formulation of a method of 

i In this connection see Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology 
of Special Disability in Spelling, 1918, pages 79-80. 

[41] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

teaching spelling, but obviously many of the questions 
that the practical teacher will ask are left unanswered. 
Some of these are: What is the best form of visual 
presentation? How may visual and auditory methods 
be effectively combined? What is a practical plan for 
the oral repetition of words? What combinations of 
visual, auditory, and motor elements give satisfactory 
results? Shall syllables or letters be vocalized? Shall 
words be presented in columns or in sentences? Which 
is better, individual or class study? These questions, 
and many more that might be formulated, show that the 
pedagogy of spelling is much more than a statement of 
psychological principles. In fact, the psychology of 
spelling provides us with principles for general guid- 
ance only in selecting methods of teaching. The 
greater task, as well as the more practical task, is to 
work out the detailed applications of these principles 
to actual schoolroom work. 

THE SELECTION OF EXERCISES AND METHODS 

The experimental method of investigation. In for- 
mer times we have had to rely entirely upon the class- 
room teacher for working out and testing applications 
of pedagogical principles and methods of teaching. 
The practice led to serious consequences due to the 
comparatively limited experience of any one person, 
the difficulty of tracing cause and effect in complex 
schoolroom situations, and the insecurity of general- 
izing upon the basis of individual observations. More 
recently a way of evaluating classroom methods has 
been devised which retains the intimacy of the teacher's 
contact with practical teaching and yet yields results of 
scientific value. This method is illustrated in Mr. 
Pearson's study of homonyms reported above. In 
[42] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

brief, it consists of the comparative study of two meth- 
ods or devices of teaching under actual schoolroom 
conditions, in which all factors except the one under 
study are carefully neutralized. To illustrate, if the 
problem is the determination of the relative value of 
class and independent study by comparing the growth 
in spelling efficiency of two classes in a given period of 
time, then extreme care is taken to select groups of 
children of the same spelling ability and training, to 
get word lists of equal difficulty, to keep the amount and 
distribution of time the same for each class, etc. If all 
these factors have been carefully balanced, then any 
difference in results will be due to a real difference in the 
value of the methods of teaching. It is obvious that to 
be of any significance experiments of this kind must be 
performed accurately and according to accepted prin- 
ciples of scientific investigation, and that results must 
be interpreted in the light of these facts. When results 
are obtained and interpreted in this manner, they have 
the utmost significance for teaching. The selection of 
exercises and methods ceases to be entirely a matter of 
personal opinion and takes on in a measure the charac- 
teristics of a scientific procedure. 

By the use of this method of investigation, many 
important contributions have been made to the peda- 
gogy of spelling in recent years. The work of this 
chapter is to report the results of these studies, together 
with other important but less reliable material bearing 
upon the practical exercises and methods of presenting 
words. 

PRONUNCIATION, MEANING, AND USE 

Lessening emphasis upon pronunciation, meaning, 
and use in modern teaching. The pronunciation, mean- 

[43] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

ing, and use of words are more properly taught in con- 
nection with other phases of language work, but custom 
has prescribed that such work should constitute an im- 
portant part of the teaching of spelling. While there 
is an element of wisdom in this provision, we clearly need 
a reassessment of values. The old practice of spending 
one half to two thirds of the time in spelling in labori- 
ously working out, with dictionary in hand, the pronun- 
ciation, meaning, and use of words was a natural conse- 
quence of the teaching of large numbers of strange, 
technical, and unusual words. The new content of 
spelling renders this extreme emphasis unnecessary. 
By selection the words that we teach are the words with 
which the child is familiar in his oral and written com- 
position. Thus, in general, the teacher's task becomes 
not so much the development of the pronunciation, 
meaning, and use of words as the correction of mis- 
takes and the broadening of the child's knowledge of 
words. 

Importance and significance of 'pronunciation. This 
change in the character and amount of the work re- 
quired of the teacher, with the changed content of spell- 
ing, should not deceive us as to the importance and sig- 
nificance of pronunciation in learning the spelling of 
words. The first step in learning to spell a new word 
is to divide it into syllables. We pronounce each syl- 
lable and then the word as a whole. A little observation 
will show that we are almost irresistibly impelled to this 
order. When in doubt about the spelling of a word, 
most persons pronounce the word slowly by syllables 
and try to visualize the order of letters in each syllable. 
Pronunciation may be combined with writing, also. 
Again, it is said that the success of the learning exer- 
cise and of the recall of the word depends upon the close- 
ly ] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

ness of the association between the sound of the syllables 
and the visual image of the letters. 

Practical suggestions for the teacher. The practical 
suggestions for the teacher that should be drawn from 
this somewhat abstract discussion are quite obvious. 
^ First, careful pronunciation should always precede the 
spelling of the word. The first pronunciation in the 
spelling exercise should be slow and distinct, emphasiz- 
ing the syllables of the word but not destroying the 
unity of the auditory image.} A good practice is for 
the teacher to dictate the original pronunciation, with 
the word written in syllables on the board. The chil- 
dren repeat after her, at the same time making a careful 
visual analysis of each syllable as it is pronounced. 
After some knowledge of words has been gained, several 
repetitions of this exercise will suffice for the learning 
of certain words. Learning in this case will consist of 
the recognition of common or phonetic groups of let- 
ters, as the common phonograms pro and gram in pro- 
gram. When the entire word is not mastered in this 
exercise, it will often result in the learning of common 
parts of words and in fixing attention upon uncommon 
or unphonetic parts. Second, clear and accurate enun- 
ciation should always be insisted upon. Children tend 
to spell as they speak, and they bring to the spelling 
class many habitual and careless inaccuracies of speech 
which greatly increase the difficulties of the spelling 
teacher. A little concentrated drill in connection with 
this or some other phase of language work, preferably 
the latter, directed against the common mispronuncia- 
tions that occur in children's speech, will add greatly to 
the ease of teaching spelling. 

Value of indicating the pronunciation of words by 
syllabification and diacritical marking. The value of 

[45] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

indicating the pronunciation of words by syllabification 
and diacritical marking has been definitely determined. 
It would seem from the evidence available that its value 
is variable, depending upon the mental type of the indi- 
vidual learner. For the visual-minded it is a distinct 
hindrance, but for the auditory-minded it is an equally 
distinct advantage. The difficulty for the visual learn- 
ers is probably explained by the interference of the un- 
natural markings with the clear, vivid picturing of the 
word. As is found in reading, also, a word diacritically 
marked presents an entirely different appearance from 
the word unmarked ; the child may recognize the one and 
not the other. The gain of indicating the pronuncia- 
tion of words to children when the words are unfamiliar 
and difficult and when the learners are of the auditory 
type, may be greater than the loss due to impairing the 
appearance of the word, but these conditions do not 
obtain in the schoolroom. The words are common, 
everyday words and a large majority of the learners 
are of the visual type. Therefore it would seem inad- 
visable and unnecessary to use the diacritical marking 
method. The same arguments may not hold against 
the limited use of a few simple marks that do not mate- 
rially affect the appearance of the word, such as the 
long and short marking of vowels, if these markings 
prove to be necessary. 

The value and use of phonics. The study of phonics 
directly aids the learning of spelling by giving a knowl- 
edge of the sound value of letters ; by developing clear 
articulation and accurate enunciation; by correcting 
inaccuracies of speech ; by strengthening the associa- 
tion between the common speech sounds and their literal 
equivalents ; and by calling attention to the common ele- 
ments of words. A discussion of the extent to which 
[46] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

phonics should be taught in order to accomplish these 
results, or of when the teaching of phonics should be 
begun and how it should be conducted, may well be 
waived here as irrelevant. The results are likely to be 
realized whatever method is pursued, and should be 
considered a by-product, not the chief end, in teaching 
phonics. 

A common mistake in the spelling exercise is to carry 
the phonetic analysis of words too far. As pointed out 
above, the syllable, not the letter, should be the unit in 
vocalization. It may sometimes be advisable to have 
certain children sound individual letters, but not usu- 
ally. 

Meaning and use. Spelling has no significance apart 
from the use of words in sentences. Any drill upon 
special word lists is bound to be more or less isolated and 
artificial. This consideration has led some teachers 
and textbook makers to go to the extreme of present- 
ing words to children only by dictation in sentences or 
in connected passages. While appreciating the point 
made, it would seem that substantially the same results 
can be accomplished without adopting these extreme 
measures. By selection we have a list of words with 
which the child comes into frequent contact. By call- 
ing attention to the recurrence of these words in written 
compositions, by making lists of the words frequently 
misspelled in written work, by requiring the use of 
words in sentences, and by a variety of other exercises, 
the teacher will be able to keep the purpose and signifi- 
cance of spelling clearly before the children as well as 
provide for the use of words in their natural setting. 

Obviously, it is unreasonable to require a child to 
learn the spelling of a word with the meaning of which 
he is not familiar. The probability is that the children 

[47] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

will know the meaning of words selected as described in 
Chapter One and that they will be able to use the words 
readily in sentences. The extent to which meaning and 
use should be taught is dependent upon the needs of the 
particular class. To be on the safe side and to keep 
the relation of spelling to composition clearly before the 
class, the teacher should have all the words defined or, 
preferably, used in sentences. For the most common 
words the backward members of the class may be called 
upon. The more unusual words and words with a vari- 
ety of meanings should receive whatever treatment the 
particular needs of the class may require. 

The teacher cannot be sure of the mental image which 
a particular word will call to the mind of the child, nor 
can she always anticipate the sense in which a common 
word will be used. The safest plan is to let children 
make their own sentences, and to correct or expand the 
definition and use of words as the need arises. 

Definitions. The definition is a device for testing or 
clarifying the pupil's knowledge of a word. It is fre- 
quently difficult for pupils to give and is not so vital as 
the use of the word in a sentence. Nevertheless, it may 
be used to add variety and interest to the work. 

The logical definition of words involves a high degree 
of abstract thinking and should not be expected of chil- 
dren in the lower grades. The child himself may guide 
us in the matter. It has been found that the rational 
method of defining words for children in the fourth 
grade is by colloquial definitions ; in the fifth grade the 
use of synonyms becomes prominent ; and in the sixth 
grade logical definitions are in the majority, although 
definitions of the other kinds are still common. 

Relation between knowledge of meaning and correct 
spelling. The important relation between a knowledge 
[48] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

of the meaning of the word and the correct spelling of 
the word is pointed out by Hollingworth 2 in the fol- 
lowing paragraph: "On the basis of these data we 
conclude that knowledge of meaning is probably in and 
of itself an important determinant of error in spelling; 
that children will produce about 66% per cent more 
of misspellings in writing words the meaning of which 
they are ignorant or uncertain, than they will produce 
in writing words the meaning of which they know." 
Whether or not ignorance of the meaning of words is a 
cause of misspelling, or whether knowledge of meaning 
and correct spelling simply occur together, possibly as 
the result of common causes, the experiment does not 
make clear. At any rate, a relationship between the 
two is evident, and no one is likely to question the im- 
portance of increasing the child's familiarity with the 
meaning and use of words as a condition to correct 
spelling. 

Training in use of dictionary. The knowledge of 
how to use the dictionary is essential to the development 
of independent power in acquiring the pronunciation, 
meaning, use, and spelling of words. If this is not pro- 
vided for in other phases of language work, it must be 
made a part of the work in spelling. The teacher will 
do well to follow the suggestions of Professor Suzzallo : 3 
" First, the alphabet is reviewed to see if it is well within 
the child's easy habitual command. Then the child is 
sent to the dictionary to find simple words the spelling 
of which he knows. At first these words have different 
initials, to establish the simple principles of alphabetic 
order. Later, words beginning with the same initials 

2 Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology of Special Disability 
in Spelling, 1918, page 57. 

3 Suzzallo, Henry, The Teaching of Spelling, 1911, pages 93-94. 

[49] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

are assigned, to show that the initial letter alone does 
not determine the place of a word in an alphabetical 
list. Thus the principles of alphabetical and sub- 
alphabetical arrangements are mastered. And last, 
words, the spellings of which are doubtful to the child, 
are given ; and the child is taught to scan the pages till 
he finds them. Special exercises are given to show a 
child how the pronunciation (lesser, lessor; least, lest) 
or meaning will assist him to find the word when the 
spelling is in doubt (capitol, capital; limpit, limpid). 
Special exercises are given to show the child how to 
determine which is the preferred spelling when there are 
two. 

" Exercises in finding pronunciation are given in the 
same careful way until each technique is taught, — pre- 
ferred pronunciation, the interpretation of diacritical 
marks through the key words at the bottom of the page, 
the meaning of the accents, etc. Then the child is 
drilled until he can readily determine the meaning of a 
word. The abbreviations for the parts of speech are 
explained. He is encouraged to read all the meanings, 
avoiding those marked 6 rare,' 6 colloquial,' or 6 obso- 
lete,' and to select the most likely meaning with the aid 
of the examples of usage." 



" Seeing " superior to " hearing." The superiority 
of " seeing " to " hearing " in the teaching of spelling 
as shown in the discussion of psychological principles 
appears also in actual classroom studies of the problem. 
In fact, the truth of this hypothesis was first demon- 
strated in the experimental-pedagogical studies. Dr. 
Lay 4 in 1895 found that reading words from the board 

* Lay, W. A., Fiirher durch den Bechtschreibunterricht ge- 

[50] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

was superior to the dictation of the spelling of words 
by the teacher, when in each case the children kept 
tightly closed jaws to prevent or limit movements of 
speech organs. The reading method proved to be two 
or three times better than the dictation method. These 
results were abundantly substantiated by succeeding 
students of the problem. Thus a controversy lasting 
from the time of Pestalozzi was laid to rest, and teachers 
now generally accept the superiority of " seeing " to 
" hearing " as a valid principle of teaching. 

" SEEING " 

"Seeing" or visual presentation, " Seeing" in the 
general terms of everyday pedagogy means anj 7 form of 
presentation in which appeal is made mainly to the eye. 
It includes the perception and picturing of words, sylla- 
bles, and letters. The aim in presentation is to develop 
clear, vivid, accurate mental images. 

Steps in visual presentation. " Seeing " is more 
than looking at a word. » It involves an active atti- 
tude — a visual analysis of the word into its parts, a~ 
recognition of familiar and of unfamiliar parts, a com- 
parison of these with similar parts of other words, and 
finally weighing and emphasizing the difficult parts. A 
more detailed discussion, with illustrations of these 
principles, follows. 

Recalling and vivifying the child's mental picture of 
the whole word. For recalling and making vivid the 
child's mental picture of the whole word some teachers 
begin by having the spelling lesson on the board before 
the children during the day. The incidental reading of 

griindet auf psychologische VersucTie und angeschlossen an seine 
Entwicklungs-gesehichte und eine Kritik des ersten Sach und 
Sprachunterrichts. Wiesbaden, 1899. 

[51] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

such lists no doubt has value in familiarizing the pupil 
with the word forms. At the beginning of the spelling 
period the list is erased, for reasons that will appear 
below. Each word is then taken up individually and is 
written out by the teacher in syllables, before the class. 
The syllables are only slightly spaced, so as not to im- 
pair the image of the whole word. In the writing proc- 
ess, the child sees not only the word form but the making 
of the word form. This, it is thought, facilitates learn- 
ing by virtue of the motor imagery suggested by seeing 
performed the muscular movements involved in writing 
the word. 

Words to be presented singly unless grouped accord- 
ing to a logical, psychological principle. The question 
as to whether words should be presented to children 
singly or together was investigated by Dr. Abbott 5 
and, indirectly at least, by Arps. 6 The conclusions of 
the two investigators harmonize perfectly, although 
they approached the subject from different angles. 
They conclude that for permanent learning the presen- 
tation of words one at a time is better, although for im- 
mediate reproduction simultaneous presentation in a 
fixed order proves more effective. The explanation of 
these facts offered by Arps is, that words promiscuously 
grouped on the page or board form incidental relation- 
ships due to proximity of position, or closeness of repe- 
tition in time ; that these relationships aid the immediate 
learning and recall of words ; that they quickly lose 
their potency when the immediate situation in which the 

s Abbott, E. E., " On the Analysis of Memory Consciousness in 
Orthography." Psychological Monographs, Vol. X, No. 1, Uni- 
versity of Illinois. 

6 Arps, G. F., " Attitude as a Determinant in Spelling Efficiency 
in Immediate and Delayed Recall." Journal of Educational Psy- 
chology, Vol. VI, 1915, pages 400-418. 

[52] 



THE PRESENTATION OP WORDS 

words were learned fades away. Teachers find by expe- 
rience that children memorize words in a certain order 
and that they spell the words more readily in this order 
than in any other. The fact of the loss in the delayed 
recall of the words is not so obvious, but it is none the 
less real, as shown by experiments. 

The argument against promiscuous grouping will not 
hold against grouping according to a logical — that is, 
psychological — principle. Unless such groupings are 
possible it is better to present words singly, or in case 
of simultaneous presentation frequently to change the 
order of words in presentation, drill, and test. 

The question of " transfer. 1 " The value of present- 
ing words in columns when words are naturally used in 
composition only, is a question frequently raised by 
teachers. There are several aspects to the problem, but 
in essence it is this: To what extent does efficiency 
gained in column presentation carry over into con- 
textual use? 

Contradictory conclusions of Cornman, Wallin, and 
Cook and O'Shea. The conclusions of the experimental 
investigations of the problem vary from one extreme to 
the other. Cornman 7 concluded that there is little if 
any transfer from column to sentence use of words. 
Wallin 8 contradicted this and said that the loss in 
transfer is not over two words in a hundred. Cook and 
O'Shea 9 agreed with Wallin in finding a slight loss. It 
amounted to 5 per cent. 

Results of investigation by the author and Miss 
Brown. The investigation by the author and Miss 

7 Cornman, O. P., Spelling in the Elementary School, 1902. 

8 Wallin, J. E. W., Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, Grade 
and Sex, and the Question of Transfer, 1911. 

9 Cook and O'Shea, " Column versus Contextual Spelling." The 
Child and His Spelling, 1914, Chapter V. 

[53] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Brown 10 leads to the belief that all these investigators 
to some extent missed the mark. Cornman's conclu- 
sions were not supported by careful and precise meas- 
urements. Wallin and Cook and O'Shea failed to take 
into consideration the extent of the children's knowledge 
of the words before the teaching began. They lumped 
all the words already known to the children in with the 
words actually learned as a result of the specific column 
drill, which of course makes the loss as compared with 
the number of correct spellings very small. When Miss 
Brown and I did the same thing, we found that the loss 
in transfer is only 4 per cent. On the other hand, 
when we began by subtracting from the number of cor- 
rect spellings in the column and dictation tests the num- 
ber of words spelled correctly before teaching, and then 
made our comparison, we found that the loss in transfer 
is 11 per cent. 

The loss in transfer a real one. This loss in transfer 
is a real one, neither so large as to justify the statement 
that there is little if any transfer, nor so small as to be 
negligible. The practical question for the teacher is, 
what use is to be made of this fact? In the first place, 
it is not a question of " column presentation " versus 
some other kind of presentation. No one has ever 
found a satisfactory substitute for a good form of 
spelling drill. It is pure folly to say that spelling can 
be taught without taking words out of sentences and 
giving them individual attention. At the same time 
some provision should be made in the plan for teaching 
which will insure greater skill in the use of words in sen- 
tences. Just what this provision should be is more or 

loTidyman, "W. F., and Brown, Helen A., "The Extent and 
Meaning of the Loss in Transfer in Spelling." Elementary 
School Journal, Vol. XVIII, No. 3, 1917, pages 210-214. 

[54] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

less a matter of individual opinion. I believe it is 
mainly a problem for individual study and review, and 
so discontinue the discussion until those topics are 
reached. 

An instance of another kind of loss in " transfer " 
was found by Mead X1 in his investigation of the extent 
to which college students " use the accurate spelling 
vocabulary of their themes in English in themes in soci- 
ology." He found a decided tendency to lower the 
standard of efficiency in spelling in the sociology themes, 
and suggests the need for higher standards for written 
work in subjects other than English as a means of in- 
creasing students' spelling efficiency. 

Picking out the familiar, unfamiliar, and difficult 
parts of words. Picking out the familiar, unfamiliar, 
and difficult parts of words is an exercise that gives 
interest and variety to the detailed study of the word. 
It also makes possible the isolation and concentration 
of attention, successively, upon the several parts of the 
word, comparison with familiar combinations of letters, 
and concentration of effort upon the unusual or difficult 
portions, all of which makes for clearness of perception 
and ease and economy of learning. Thus, with the word 
clearly before them on the board the pupils are asked to 
find: words in words, such as connect-i-cut, in Connecti- 
cut; common phonograms or elements, such as other in 
mother, another; common prefixes and suffixes, such as 
pro, epi, inter, ness; and stems, such as bright in 
brightly, brighter, brightness. 

Emphasizing the unfamiliar part. The picking out 
of the unfamiliar portions of words is even more im- 
portant than picking out the familiar portions. It has 

11 Mead, A. R., "Transfer of Spelling Vocabulary." Journal 
of Educational Psychology, Vol. VIII, 1917, pages 41-44. 

[55] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

a different purpose in teaching. Pointing out the fa- 
miliar part is for the purpose of dismissing it with a 
mental note of recognition, while determining the un- 
familiar part is for the purpose of stressing just that 
part in learning. For example, in intercede, the inter 
is at once recognized by an upper-grade pupil and re- 
quires only passing notice, while a great deal of em- 
phasis should be laid upon cede. 

Variation in difficulty of the parts of words. Simi- 
larly, locating the difficult part of the word is an im- 
portant part of the work of teacher and pupils. This 
is not a superhuman task for the teacher to perform, al- 
though much help can be given by a more careful and 
systematic experimental study of the kinds and fre- 
quencies of errors that children make. For the pres- 
ent, the teacher will have to rely largely upon her ex- 
perience, common sense, and observation of children's 
written work. One teacher who to my knowledge ob- 
tained excellent results in spelling had a systemr.tic 
plan for checking up the particular mistakes made by 
her children in the preliminary tests. It will be found 
that children repeat certain errors over and over 
again, 12 and that certain words are subject to peculiar 
pitfalls. A common illustration is the first a in sepa- 
rate. The difficulty of this word represents a large 
class of difficulties; namely, the confusion of vowels 
having obscure or equivalent sounds. One fifth of the 
errors that children make are due to this cause. As a 
source of errors it is exceeded in extent and viciousness 
only by the silent letters. Over one half the mistakes 
in spelling are due to the omission or insertion of silent 

12 See Kallom, A. W., "Some Causes of Misspelling." Journal 
of Educational Psychology, Vol. VIII, 1917, Table I, pages 396- 
397. 

[56] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

letters. Together, these two classes of errors consti- 
tute three fourths of children's misspellings. There- 
fore any deviation from phonetic spelling and any place 
where vowels are likely to be confused because of ob- 
scure or equivalent sounds should receive the special 
attention of teacher and pupil. 

Order of syllables as a factor. Another general 
principle of localizing word difficulties is suggested by 
Hollingworth. 13 Of 102 errors occurring in the spell- 
ing of 11 polysyllabic words, 52 errors were made on 
the intermediate syllable, 19 on the initial syllable, and 
31 on the ultimate. 27 dissyllabic words gave 60 er- 
rors on the ultimate and 37 on the initial syllable. 
Thus it is clear that the middle and ultimate syllables 
present the greatest difficulty for spelling. '■ " The im- 
plication for pedagogy here seems to be that stress 
should be placed on intermediate and final syllables in 
the teaching of new words, as the initial element tends to 
take care of itself." 

Emphasizing the difficult parts of words. Distribu- 
tion of time and effort among parts of words according 
to their difficulty pervades all phases of the spelling 
work, but is especially important in visual presenta- 
tion. Children readily learn to pick out the hard 
portions of words. The parts so distinguished should 
be underlined and discussed to show why they are 
difficult. Tracing the difficult part of the word in 
colored chalk or inclosing it in parentheses is a plan 
sometimes followed instead of underlining. In my opin- 
ion, underlining is the simplest and least confusing de- 
vice that can be used for the purpose. It is effective 
and does not destroy or impair the appearance of the 
word. 

is Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., page 42. 

[57] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Associating the difficult part of a word with the same 
difficulty in other words. The difficult part of the 
word is made to stand out more clearly by comparison 
and association with the same difficulty in other words. 
This point was emphasized in connection with our dis- 
cussion of grouping. When words are not presented in 
groups distinguished by a common difficulty, — that is, 
when they are presented singly, — the same result may 
be obtained by recalling words having the same diffi- 
culty. As far as possible the pupils should be made 
responsible for this work. When the words are 
recalled, the common point of difficulty may be em- 
phasized by calling attention to it verbally; or if 
more emphasis is desired, the words may be listed 
on the board for more careful comparison and inspec- 
tion. 

Additional principles of associating words. The 
comparison of word with word opens up a large field of 
devices by which the literal composition of the word 
may be vivified. The comparison of words having sim- 
ilar difficulties is but one phase of the work in which 
words having vital similarities or relationships are asso- 
ciated in learning. These include, in addition, the as- 
sociation of words having similar phonogrammic units, 
as phonograph and telegraphy program and telegram; 
words having similar form and meaning, including all 
root words and their modifications, such as beauty, 
beautiful, beauteous; words having similar changes in 
form to denote differences in meaning, such as city 
(cities) and lady (ladies). 

Observation and comparison of words, a concrete 
basis for word study. These comparisons of word with 
word form a concrete basis for a large part of word 
study frequently associated with spelling. A compar- 

[ 58 ] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

ative study of words of the first two classes brings out 
certain common elements of words, such as stems, pre- 
fixes, suffixes, and the more frequent modification of 
words in respect to the formation of adjective and ad- 
verbial forms, number, tense, and the like. This pro- 
vides the material and the method of approach for most 
of the word building that need be carried on in the 
school. In these exercises our primary interest is in 
developing control over the ordering of letters in words 
rather than in the development of meanings. By em- 
phasizing the common elements of words, the pupil rec- 
ognizes their familiar forms as they recur in different 
connections and need give little thought to their spell- 
ing. In taking up a new word, such as 'womanly, it is 
a simple matter to refer to the already familiar woman 
and the type modification ly. After the root form has 
been learned, the common modifications should present 
little difficulty and require little extra time in spelling. 
Opportunities will arise frequently in taking up a new 
word to call attention to the root and its common 
modification so that not one but several words are 
learned. 

Teaching derived forms necessary. Parenthetically, 
we may notice that the teaching of derived forms is a 
necessary part of spelling instruction. Mr. Ballou 14 
showed in an extensive investigation of this problem in 
the Boston Public Schools that children find the spelling 
of derived forms, even simple plurals and simple verbs 
in ing, e. g., singing, considerably more difficult than 
the root forms which have been studied previously ; and 
the derived forms present new spelling difficulties. 
I Finally, the comparison of words having similar 

14 Boston Public Schools, The Teaching of Spelling. School 
Document No. 17, 1916, pages 14-19. 

[59] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

changes in form provides a wealth of detailed instances 
for the formulation of such rules of spelling as are 
found necessary and useful in learning. / 

Immediate recall, an important factor in learning. 
One other fact about visual presentation needs to be 
emphasized; namely, the importance of immediate re- 
call in learning. After the word has been shown and 
the visual appearance of the word emphasized in the 
manner described above, it is well to allow the child 
time to change perception into mental imagery at once, 
while it is fresh and vivid. The pupils are told to shut 
their eyes, put their heads on their arms, or turn 
around, and try to visualize the word — see the word 
as it appeared on the board. Such devices take but an 
instant and are an important contribution to the learn- 
ing exercises. 

" HEARING " 

Certain phases of the importance of the auditory ele- 
ment in learning spelling were pointed out in connec- 
tion with the pronunciation of words and syllables. 
Because of the close association of thinking with hear- 
ing and speaking, and the fundamental knowledge of 
word sounds which the child brings to school with him, 
the pronunciation of words and syllables is an important 
factor in spelling. But " hearing " in this connection 
means something entirely different. It is the dictation 
of the order of letters in words. 

Mental processes involved in hearing a word spelled. 
It has been found that when the spelling of words is 
dictated, visual imagery is invariably substituted at 
once for heard letters and heard letters are never re- 
called in terms of auditory imagery. It would seem, 
then, that dictation is simply a roundabout way of 
[60] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

calling up the visual image of the word in the child's 
mind, a result that might be accomplished more directly 
and effectively by visual presentation. 

Dictation of little value as a separate spelling exer- 
cise. As a separate exercise in spelling dictation has 
little value. Lay found that it was only one half or 
one third as effective as visual presentation, and only 
one sixth as effective as copying. 

Such value as it has is largely due to that group of 
exceptional children who employ auditory imagery to a 
considerable extent in the learning and recall of words. 
There are a few children who recall words directly 
through the auditory image of the letter, and a few 
others who employ the auditory image of letters as asso- 
ciated with the visual image of the letters. The latter 
process is connected primarily with the recall of phonet- 
ically spelled words. For words not phonetically 
spelled dictation has even less value. 

With phonetically spelled words dictation has its 
greatest usefulness. There is a definite and consistent 
relation between the sound of the word and the order 
of letters. The attention of the children may be called 
to such words, and the teacher may employ devices to 
introduce the auditory element. For example, in writ- 
ing the word on the board for presentation she may 
spell the word as she writes. 

Value of hearing a word spelled incidentally realized 
in oral spelling. For the most part auditory presenta- 
tion is taken care of in ordinary classroom procedure by 
association with other exercises and needs little sepa- 
rate treatment by the teacher. All vocalization pro- 
vides an appeal to the ear, whether it is loud, as in oral 
spelling, or soft, in connection with copying. Loud 
oral spelling, which is one of the commonest schoolroom 

[61] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

devices, makes an auditory appeal both to the pupil re- 
citing and to the listeners. 

MOVEMENTS OF HAND AND THEOAT 

Significance, In the visual and auditory presenta- 
tion of words we have been concerned with impressing 
word forms on the mind from without. Movements of 
hand and throat, on the other hand, involve the writ- 
ten or verbal expression of word forms from within. 
Expression clarifies and deepens the mental image of the 
word, at the same time serving as a check upon the ac- 
curacy and vividness of the image. Writing has the 
peculiar advantage, also, of giving a new visual impres- 
sion of the word each time the word is repeated. Even 
more significant for spelling are the new bonds of asso- 
ciation formed through the medium of motor images. 
It is through these, as we have seen, that spelling knowl- 
edge is turned into skill. 

Value, Movements of hand and throat, as stated in 
a previous connection, do not occur independently. 
They are always associated with visual or auditory 
presentation. The value of these is seen when they are 
compared with " seeing " and " hearing " alone. An 
average of the results of three important investigations 
shows that the addition of speech and writing move- 
ments to visual and auditory presentation decreases 
the number of errors approximately one third. The re- 
sults of Dr. Lay alone would put the figure as high 
as two thirds. 

The gain is clearly attributable to both forms of 
motor expression, although the writing movement has 
the larger share in the results. Over a third is due to 
the writing movement, while about one fourth is due to 
speech movement. Moreover, the gain of one fourth 

[62] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

cannot be assigned wholly to the movements of the or- 
gans of speech. The ear must share the responsibility, 
since the oral spelling of the experiments includes audi- 
tory as well as speech-motor elements. 

Place of oral spelling as a spelling exercise. Oral 
spelling is an exercise that has the weight of tradition 
behind it. Until quite recent times it was practically 
the only method used in the teaching of spelling. 
Gradually now it is being supplemented by other meth- 
ods. There is a possible danger that we shall go to the 
extreme of discountenancing it entirely. That would 
be as inexcusable as uncritically assigning it to its tra- 
ditional place in teaching. It is obvious that to use 
oral spelling intelligently we need to know its relative 
value as a spelling exercise. This we have found to be 
second only to writing movements. 

The objections to oral spelling are not its use so much 
as its overuse; and second, the fact that it is not the 
way that children need to spell in real life. These ob- 
jections will be met by assigning to oral spelling its 
proper place as a spelling exercise. As a method of 
presentation, oral spelling means the formation of a 
new kind of word imagery, the speech-motor image com- 
bined with an auditory image of the word as one hears 
it spelled by himself. That is, to the visual and pure 
auditory images of the word is added a speech-motor 
form, a multiple appeal which illustrates an important 
and well-known principle in learning. The importance 
of the speech-motor-auditory method of presentation is 
shown not only by experiments, but as well by consid- 
eration of the closeness of the relation between speaking 
and thinking. 

The use of oral spelling. The use of oral spelling is 
pretty generally understood by teachers, although some 

[63] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

suggestions along this line may not be out of place. 
After developing the pronunciation and the visual phase 
of the presentation of the word, the teacher usually calls 
upon one of the pupils or the whole class to spell the 
word orally. The group method of reciting may be 
easily overdone and should be watched carefully. Its 
value lies in giving each pupil a chance to spell the word 
aloud, a thing that would be impossible with individual 
recitations only. The dangers are that children who 
have the greatest need for the work will not join in the 
exercise at all, or that they will follow a few leaders, re- 
peating the letters mechanically after them ; and second, 
that it is difficult for the teacher to watch clearness, 
accuracy, and precision of spelling, all of which are very 
important in the work of presentation. The alert, cap- 
able teacher will reduce these evils to a minimum by 
keeping group spelling from degenerating into a monot- 
onous, indifferent mumbling; by calling upon the lazy 
and backward pupils for special recitations; etc. 

For oral spelling the word may be presented to the 
children visually, on the board, or orally, by dictation. 
Both devices may be used for variety, but the former 
gives the better results. 

Children may spell in a soft voice or a loud voice. 
In connection with " seeing " it was found to make lit- 
tle difference which one was used; when combined with 
" hearing," loud speaking was the more effective. 

In addition to this audible spelling the children should 
be taught to spell in a whisper and to themselves. 
Thus, when copying a word from the board, the pupil 
may well spell the word to himself as he writes. The 
obvious advantage of these devices is that children may 
carry them on individually without disturbing other 
children and without following a lockstep order. 

[64] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 
MOVEMENTS OF HAND 

In comparatively recent times the use of written 
spelling in one form or another found its way into 
almost every classroom. Here its peculiar adaptabil- 
ity made it, even more than other devices, a tool of 
the " assignment " method of teaching. Later, when 
teachers came to realize the importance of the actual 
presentation of words, visual and oral spelling pressed 
forward, but written spelling remained in the back- 
ground, the almost exclusive possession of the pupil's 
independent study period. 

Writing as a part of presentation. The objection 
to this practice is not the use of written spelling for 
seat work; rather, the failure to use it as a part of 
presentation. Writing the word vivifies its visual im- 
agery, but, of vastly more importance, it forms the con- 
nection between the visual or auditory or speech-motor 
image of the word and its hand-motor image, the con- 
nection which is to make spelling automatic and which 
will be used throughout life. The better teaching of 
the day goes little beyond the vivid visual and auditory 
presentation of words. It is quite as important that 
the hand-motor connection be formed definitely and ac- 
curately as that the child should get a clear sense pic- 
ture of the word. To accomplish this the association 
should be formed under the expert direction of the 
teacher and not left to the hit-and-miss efforts of chil- 
dren. 

Use of writing in presentation. The hand-motor ele- 
ment in learning begins with the writing of the word 
on the board by the teacher. To see a thing done is 
second only to doing it oneself. It appears again after 
the visual, auditory-speech-motor study of the word in 

[65] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

which clear mental images of the word as it appears to 
the eye, sounds to the ear, and feels to the speech-motor 
organs in oral spelling, have been formed, to tie these 
up with the hand-motor image of the word. 

Copying, The work of the hand may take the form 
either of actual writing or of merely going through the 
movements of writing. Probably the best exercise is 
for the children to write the word with the written form 
on the board before them. For this work the children 
should have a sheet of paper at hand. One side of the 
sheet that is to be used in the seat work will do very 
well. Accuracy is the primary consideration, and with 
the word before them as a model and a check there 
should be no mistakes. The word may be copied sev- 
eral times. Lay found that this exercise was two and 
one half times as valuable as mere " seeing." Simi- 
larly, the word may be spelled orally to the children, 
to be written down as before. This exercise, while not 
as profitable as copying from the board, shows consid- 
erable gains over mere dictation. A number of modi- 
fications of these two fundamental types of written work 
may be devised. For example, a pupil may be sent to 
the board to write the word before the class or the child 
may spell to himself as he writes. 

Writing movements. Writing movements may be 
substituted for the actual writing process. Two forms 
are distinguishable; namely, writing in the air and im- 
aginary writing with the finger or dull end of the lead 
pencil or pen. These may be used with the written 
word on the board or with dictation. It is a question 
whether there is any considerable value to writing in the 
air. One investigator finds that writing in the air is 
over twice as effective as " seeing " or " hearing " alone. 
Another equally expert investigator claims that this ex- 

[66] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

ercise is a failure. The experimental evidence, there- 
fore, is against any extensive use of it at the present 
time. 

Although the matter has not been studied experi- 
mentally, the imaginary writing with finger or pencil is 
more promising. It more nearly approaches the real 
writing movement and, therefore, is more accurate and 
requires closer visual analysis of the word. Tracing 
written words is a similar device suitable to the lowest 
grades. 

COMBINATIONS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC EXERCISES 

In the preceding sections we have treated the several 
orthographic exercises separately. Even more import- 
ant for practical teaching is the combining of exercises 
to form a complete method of presentation. Teachers 
nowadays do not rely upon a single exercise for impress- 
ing a word vividly upon the mind of the child. It is 
common knowledge that a combination of exercises is 
better than any one exercise. Our particular problem 
is to find what combination or combinations give the best 
results. 

In several experiments combined methods of teaching 
have been compared and evaluated. These have a di- 
rect and important bearing upon our problem. There- 
fore I shall describe here in some detail the methods of 
presentation that have given the best results in these 
studies. 

Copying and oral spelling. Haggenmiiller and 
Fuchs 15 found that a combination of copying and oral 
spelling was better than any other combination of exer- 
cises studied. Also, it made little difference whether 

is Schiller, H. H., Haggenmiiller, A., and Fuehs, H., Studien 
und Versuche uber die Erlernung der Orthographic. Berlin, 1898. 

[67] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

the oral spelling was loud or soft. There was a slight 
advantage for loud spelling. 

Meaning, seeing the word written on the board, read- 
ing, spelling, and writing movement. Marique's 16 best 
method was this: The teacher explained the meaning 
of the word, then pronounced each syllable separately 
and wrote it on the blackboard. The pupils read each 
syllable separately and then spelled it once more while 
tracing it on their desks with the forefinger. The 
method second in value was as follows: The meaning 
was first explained by the teacher, then each letter was 
pronounced separately by him, and the words were 
finally repeated in the same way by the students all to- 
gether. The first method raised the class average to 
nearly twice that of the second method, and nearly three 
times that of any other method investigated. 

" Seeing," " hearing," and oral spelling. Winch 17 
compared a combined " seeing," " hearing," and oral 
method with a " seeing " method in which the children 
studied the words silently from the board. The com- 
bined method showed a considerable gain on the other. 
The author described it as follows : " The words of 
Set A were shown on a blackboard and the head master, 
a man much experienced in experimental work, spelt 
each word carefully, with slight pauses between the syl- 
lables, though these were pronounced, and a clear, dis- 
tinct pronunciation of each word after spelling. Then 
the boys, simultaneously, word by word, after the exper- 
imenter, spelt each word twice, in an audible voice, look- 
ing at each letter as they named it. This took nine 

isMarique, P. J., An Experimental Investigation in French 
Orthography. Thesis, New York University, 1911. Unpublished. 

17 Winch, W. H., " Experimental Researches in Learning to 
Spell." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. IV, 1913, pages 
525-537. 

[68] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

minutes. The remaining minutes were given to a sec- 
ond spelling of the words near the middle of the list." 
Visualization, meaning, use, writing, and oral spell- 
ing. Fulton's 18 method of teaching spelling included 
the following steps : 

1. Teacher writes word once upon the board. 
S. Teacher explains meaning of the word. 

3. Children use the word in a sentence. 

4. The children write word ten times, and while writ- 
ing say each letter aloud. 

5. Teacher emphasizes by intonation of voice or by 
colored chalk on blackboard the difficult parts of 
the word. 

Visual presentation, pronunciation, oral spelling, and 
writing. In a later investigation Winch 19 found that 
a " direct " method of teaching spelling was superior to 
an " indirect " method which included writing the word 
on the blackboard, comments as pointing out difficulties 
and giving meanings, use in oral sentences, and dicta- 
tion in oral sentences. The " direct " method included: 
visual presentation from the board, pronunciation of 
the word by the teacher, pronunciation and oral spell- 
ing by the pupils, and writing the word on paper. 

Meaning, use, oral spelling, visualization, and writ- 
ing. Pearson's 20 best method of presenting words, as 
described by himself, was as follows : 

is Fulton, M. J., " On Experiments in Teaching Spelling." 
Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XXI, No. 2, 1914, pages 287-299. 

19 Winch, W. H., " Further Experimental Research on Learning 
to Spell." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. IV, 1913, 
pages 579-592. 

20 Pearson, H. C, "Experimental Studies in the Teaching of 
Spelling." Teachers College Record, Vol. XIII, No. 1, Part II, 
1912, page 53. 

[69] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

1. The first word was written on the board in the 
presence of the class, and then studied as follows: 

(a) Its meaning was given, and it was used in a 
sentence. 

(6) It was spelled aloud in concert, and indi- 
vidually by the poor spellers. 

(c) Its peculiarities, such as silent letters, ei 
and ie combinations, etc., were pointed out. 

(c?) The word was written once, twice, or three 
times by pupils, who spelled it silently as 
they wrote. 

2. Each word in turn was written on the board and 
studied in the same way. 

3. Next, the whole column was reviewed orally, the 
children first spelling each word from the board 
and then turning from the board, spelling again 
(either silently or aloud). 

Summary. These experiments with methods of 
teaching have much in common. They give conclusive 
evidence to the statement that combined methods are 
superior to any single method of presenting words. 
Moreover, they show in a general way what combination 
gives the best results. Of the seven " best " methods, 
all include some form of visual presentation and oral 
spelling ; all but one include writing the word ; meaning 
or use is mentioned three times, pronunciation twice, 
and dictation once. That is, some form of visual pres- 
entation, oral spelling, and writing are found in prac- 
tically every investigation. 

A GENERAL METHOD OF PRESENTING WORDS 

In this comparative study of the " best " methods we 
have found the particular combination of orthographic 
[70] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

exercises upon which there is considerable agreement 
among investigators. We have determined the func- 
tion, value, and use of each type of presentation exer- 
cise. Finally, we have found out something about the 
order in which spelling exercises should be given. With 
this information and with our knowledge of actual 
schoolroom conditions, we should be able to construct 
a general method of presenting words of considerable 
reliability. 

Essentials of a method of presentation. The essen- 
tials of such a method of presentation seem to be as 
follows: First, the attention of the children is called 
to the whole word on the board or in the book. The 
word is pronounced by the teacher and, if quite unusual 
or unfamiliar, by the children. The word is used in a 
sentence or defined. The teacher writes the word on 
the board in syllables. The children pronounce the 
word slowly and distinctly by syllables, with a clear vis- 
ualization of the letters of each syllable. The atten- 
tion of the children is fixed upon the familiar, unfamiliar, 
common, or difficult parts of words by picking out and 
underlining these parts, and by comparing and asso- 
ciating them with similar parts of other words. The 
children are told to look away from the word and try 
to see it as it looks on the board. The word is spelled 
orally by individuals, or by the class under controlled 
conditions. In either case, oral spelling is preceded by 
a clear and accurate pronunciation of the word. Fi- 
nally, the word is written several times. 

USE OF THE METHOD OF PRESENTATION 

Adaptation necessary. Slavish obedience to this 
program is not necessary. It is offered as giving the 
essentials of a spelling method, the order in which the 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

several exercises should occur, and, roughly, the relative 
emphasis that each exercise should receive. It is highly 
desirable not only that each teacher work out her own 
plan of teaching spelling, but also that the plan be made 
elastic enough to fit all sorts of varying conditions. 

The essential things to be accomplished in any pres- 
entation of spelling words are: the recall or develop- 
ment of the heard, spoken, and written symbols of the 
word, together with its meaning and use; the clear, ac- 
curate pronunciation and visualization of the word by 
syllables; an accurate auditory-speech-motor image of 
the word ; and a definite hand-motor image. 

Variation in details of procedure for different words. 
It is obvious that to realize these purposes, the details 
of procedure must vary for different words. Words 
with which the child is familiar need receive little em- 
phasis in respect to the development of meaning, pro- 
nunciation, and use, while unfamiliar and unusual words 
should receive much emphasis in these particulars. In 
the study of monosyllables, the second step is greatly 
shortened and simplified. On the other hand, visualiza- 
tion is very important in dealing with phonetic mon- 
strosities, such as scissors. With phonetic words the 
auditory-speech-motor element is worthy of greater em- 
phasis. These detailed adjustments are very impor- 
tant for the successful use of the method and should be 
definitely provided for in the teacher's preparation of 
the daily lesson. 

Differences in pupils. Likewise modifications and 
adaptations are desirable to meet differences in pupils. 
The kinds of definitions that may be expected of chil- 
dren vary from grade to grade. Very young children 
cannot be expected to use words in sentences. The 
auditory element must receive greater emphasis with 
children in the lower grades. In the upper grades the 
[73] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

hand-motor element is increasingly important. The 
games and devices of the lower grades would be wholly 
inappropriate to the upper grades. Differences of na- 
tionality make different problems for the spelling 
teacher. Finally, individual differences in types of 
imagery should be taken into account. If the teacher is 
fortunate enough to have discovered children's prefer- 
ences in ways of learning, she can employ this knowl- 
edge to good advantage, for example, by calling upon 
a motor-minded child for special work in written and 
oral spelling. 

Provision for variety. Another important consider- 
ation in the use of this general method of presentation 
is the provision for variety. Every teacher knows that 
heroic efforts are necessary to avoid dead monotony in 
the spelling recitation. Variety may be achieved with- 
out omitting any of the essential steps of presentation 
and without materially changing the order of proced- 
ure. This is possible by varying the devices. The 
teacher usually has knowledge of a large assortment of 
devices, some of which she is in the habit of using from 
time to time. These can be readily evaluated and the 
better ones assigned to their proper places in the devel- 
opment of the lesson. Three or four devices for each 
step will provide sufficient variety for all practical pur- 
poses. 

Combination of the steps. A number of results may 
be accomplished by combining several of the steps into 
one. For example, oral spelling may be combined with 
writing — the children spell to themselves as they write. 
Second, trial recall may be combined with oral spelling 
or writing. The child is told to picture the word before 
he spells or writes it. Third, visualization and writing 
may be combined in copying. Thus variety of presen- 

[73] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

tation is added, the number of steps is reduced, and 
some time is saved. 

The teacher in working out her own plan for teach- 
ing spelling may find useful the plans used by other 
teachers. A number of these will be found in Appen- 
dix A. All have been developed in actual classroom 
work. 

Use of the method in independent study. The use of 
this method of presentation should gradually give the 
pupil the power to carry on his work independently. 
This is an important result not only for the immediate 
prosecution of his school work, but also for continued 
growth in spelling efficiency in later life. As children 
acquire the principles of word study, and the power to 
use these principles independently, teachers should see 
that children have the opportunity to exercise this 
power. Just how soon this work may be entirely turned 
over to children cannot be stated dogmatically. It will 
vary, certainly, with the capacity and the degree of de- 
velopment of children. It is not unreasonable to ex- 
pect properly trained sixth-grade pupils to perform 
practically all these exercises independently. Certain 
exercises may be placed in grades below the sixth. 

Teachers who favor a great deal of emphasis upon 
individualized instruction will find this method a useful 
tool. Children may be taught to select for study the 
words of the lesson which they do not know how to spell, 
to discover their particular errors and the particular 
causes of misspelling, to emphasize the difficult parts of 
words, to select suitable exercises, to test their own 
knowledge of words, etc. By such a method children 
are not compelled to study words which they know how 
to spell already, and may spend their time upon words 
taken from a supplementary list or upon another sub- 
[74] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

ject. However, no child should be excused from the 
review tests. 

VALUE AND USE OF BULES 

The more important and pressing problems involved 
in the presentation of words have been disposed of in 
the preceding pages of this book. Before dismissing 
the subject, however, two or three other matters should 
be considered. The first of these is the value and use 
of rules. 

Decreasing reliance upon rules, a result of classroom 
experience. Observers of the trend of spelling methods 
in the last few years notice a decreasing reliance upon 
rules for the teaching of spelling. This may be due in 
part to a knowledge of the results of experimental 
study, but I think that for the most part it is an inde- 
pendent movement. Teachers, apparently as a result 
of ordinary classroom experience, are coming to believe 
that rules do not play a large part in producing spell- 
ing efficiency. 

A result of experimental study. The results of ex- 
perimental study point in the same direction. A com- 
parative study of the more common rules of spelling 
(ie-ei, final e, final y> final consonant, final ie) led the in- 
vestigators Cook and O'Shea 21 to say, " Not a single 
rule tested proved to be of real value, except the one for 
the last two words of the list — that relating to the 
6 final ie.' " In another study, by Turner, 22 of the 
value of rules in comparison with a drill method, the 
conclusion seemed to be favorable to the drill method. 

The failure of the attempts to teach spelling by rules 

21 Cook and O'Shea, " Rules for Spelling." Op. tit, Chapter II. 

22 Turner, E. A., " Rules vs. Drill in Teaching Spelling." Jour- 
rial of Educational Psychology s Vol. Ill, 1912, pages 460-461. 

[73] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

is probably due to the difficulty of trying to make sys- 
tematic an unsystematic orthography. Children in the 
main learn spelling by seeing, hearing, and feeling words 
directly, rather than by a process of reasoning. 

However, there is not enough evidence against the use 
of rules to warrant our discarding them entirely. A 
few of the more common and useful rules may rightfully 
have a place in the upper grades. What these rules are 
is largely a matter of opinion. 

Formation of rules based upon a comparative study 
of words. The formation of rules should be based upon 
a comparative study of words. In observing the sim- 
ilar changes which words undergo in the formation of 
plurals, derivatives, and the like, the child may be led 
to see or may even discover for himself the principles of 
spelling involved. Thus, generalizations — that is, 
rules — appear as a natural outcome of the intelligent 
observation of words, rather than as arbitrary state- 
ments. 

The child should be taught the uses of rules as means 
of correcting errors, aiding the memory, and acquiring 
the spelling of new words. We should bear in mind, 
however, that spelling by rule does not take the place of 
a free, automatic use of words. 

class versus independent study 

Another feature of the method of presenting words, 
which needs merely to be pointed out by way of empha- 
sis, is the prominence given to class study. Class study 
is contrasted with independent study where children are 
told merely to " study your lesson." 

The class study plan. In the class study plan es- 
pecial care is taken that children form accurate initial 
images of words, that no form of appeal is omitted or 

[76] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

neglected, that the proper emphasis is given to each 
phase of presentation, that the images are accurate and 
vivid, that the steps of presentation occur in the best 
psychological order, that those connections are formed 
which will be most useful in life, that pupils of unusual 
mental types receive some individual attention, etc. In 
all of this, importance is attached to making a clear, 
vivid impression of the correct form of the word, the 
formation of right habits, and the prevention rather 
than the correction of errors. In this plan, also, the 
teacher takes an active part, controlling and directing 
each step of the process. 

Superiority of class study plan shown in experiments. 
The prominent place assigned to class study is justified 
by the results obtained in its use. Mr. Pearson 23 made 
a series of studies of the relative value of the class and 
independent study plans, in which the conditions were 
often unfavorable to the former. The third experi- 
ment showed most strikingly the superiority of the class 
study plan. In this experiment the class study method 
(a) eliminated from 36 per cent to 100 per cent more 
errors than the independent method, and (6) showed a 
greater relative gain in average improvement of from 
47.6 per cent to 195 per cent. The author says, " The 
evidence of this experiment, therefore, from whatever 
angle we study it shows that teaching of the class study 
type is far more effective than the independent type." 
The whole investigation gives valuable evidence of the 
superiority of the class study method. 

Following a similar line of inquiry Fulton 24 reached 
similar conclusions. The results for immediate learn- 

23 Pearson, H. C, op. cit. 

24 Fulton, M. J., "On Experiments in Teaching Spelling." 
Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XXI, No. 2, 1914, pages 287-289. 

[77] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING . 

ing as well as for retention showed the superiority of 
the drill method. 

SUMMARY 

1. Psychology provides important principles of 
presentation, but not detailed exercises and methods. 

2. The latter are obtained through experience and 
experimental investigations conducted under actual 
schoolroom conditions. 

3. The new content of spelling renders necessary a 
new emphasis upon pronunciation, meaning, and use. 

4. The new demand is for less emphasis upon de- 
veloping new language habits, and for more emphasis 
upon correcting old habits. 

5. Pronunciation plays an important part in the 
learning process. Therefore, accurate pronunciation 
should always be required and habitual and careless 
inaccuracies of speech should receive careful atten- 
tion. 

6. Syllabification is an important aid to learning, 
but the use of diacritical marks is negative in effect. 

7. The use of words in sentences is important as em- 
phasizing the practical utility of spelling and as giving 
the child opportunities for practice. 

8. Definitions have less direct value and should be 
used sparingly. 

9. If necessary, special exercises should be provided 
for definite training in the use of the dictionary. 

10. In general, visual presentation is superior to 
mere auditory presentation. 

11. The important exercises in visual presentation 
are: writing the words singly or in logical groups on 
the board before the children ; picking out the familiar, 
unfamiliar, and difficult parts of words; emphasizing 

[78] 



THE PRESENTATION OF WORDS 

the unfamiliar and difficult parts ; and associating these 
parts with similar parts of other words. 

12. The loss in " transfer " is a decided one, but the 
problem is mainly one of reviews. 

13. For identifying the hard parts of words teachers, 
at present, must rely upon certain general principles, a 
few detailed studies of the errors common to particular 
words, and their own observations. 

14. " Hearing " or the dictation of the order of let- 
ters has little value as a separate exercise. The value 
of the auditory element is realized incidentally in oral 
spelling. 

15. Oral spelling and writing are valuable exercises 
as providing new modes of imaging, means of expres- 
sion, and connections essential to the free use of words 
in writing. 

16. Comparative investigations of combined methods 
of presentation show that some form of visual presenta- 
tion, oral spelling, and writing are found in practically 
every " best " method. 

17. In view of this whole study it would seem that 
the essential tilings to be accomplished in any method of 
presentation are : the recall or development of the heard, 
spoken, and written symbols of the word, and the con- 
nection of these symbols with the meaning of the word ; 
the clear, accurate pronunciation and visualization of 
the word by syllables ; an accurate auditory-speech- 
motor image of the order of letters ; and a definite hand- 
motor image of the order of letters. 

18. Any general method of presentation must be 
adapted to difference in words and in pupils. 

19. The final test of the method of presentation is 
the ability of the pupils to employ it successfully in in- 
dependent study. 

[79] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



20. The value of the use of rules seems to be limited 
to a few very common rules. 

521. Class study methods are superior to the independ- 
ent study methods of untrained students. 



[80] 



CHAPTER FIVE 

Independent Study and Reviews 

IN the exercises of presentation vivid and accurate 
mental images of the word in its various aspects 
have been formed, and those connections have been made 
which will be most useful in life. The task of subse- 
quent study is so to fix these word pictures in the mind 
as to secure their free and spontaneous recall and use 
in writing. 

the place of independent study 

The first step toward easy control and permanency 
of learning is taken in the independent study period. 
The conclusion of a lively and vigorous presentation 
exercise leaves the word fresh and vivid in the mind. 
To stop repetition at this point is to lose much of the 
advantage gained in the preceding work in the forma- 
tion of strong, positive impressions of the words. 
Vivid impressions must be fixed and effectively tied up 
with motor expressions through immediate and fre- 
quent repetition if the learning of the word is to be 
made complete and adequate. 

It is necessary that this work be carried on by the 
children independently. The acquisition of skill comes 
only through the exercise of a faculty. This is an in- 
dividual matter. The teacher can stimulate, encour- 
age, reward, and in a general way guide the child's 
efforts, but she cannot act for the child. Also, the 
practical demands of the schoolroom are such as to 
leave the teacher little time for the supervision and 
the detailed direction of the seat work of children. 

[81] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



EXERCISES FOE USE IN INDEPENDENT STUDY 

The exercises that may be used in the individual 
study period are limited primarily by the ends which 
are to be accomplished, and secondarily by the condi- 
tions of class work. Working conditions demand that 
the seat work in spelling be of such a character as not 
to interfere with the other schoolroom activities, while 
the purposes in view limit it to such exercises as will 
produce the particular skill which ordinary writing re- 
quires. These considerations signify, first, that words 
should be written, and second, that they should be writ- 
ten in sentences. The use of words in sentences should 
be the culmination of every study period, the final appli- 
cation and test of skill gained in isolated study. Fur- 
ther drill upon writing or copying words at the seat 
may be required where learning has not been brought 
to a stage of easy mastery in the preceding drill period, 
as in the case of hard or unusual words. If in doubt 
about the thoroughness with which an isolated word has 
been learned, err on the side of too much rather than 
too little drill. At best it will be found impossible to 
prevent some loss in transfer to contextual use. 

ASSIGNMENT OF SEAT WOEK 

Such help as the teacher can give the children in their 
seat work must be in the form of directions in assigning 
the work for the day. Such assignments should be defi- 
nite and specific. They should indicate for each word 
the number of times it is to be repeated or used in a 
sentence, and if necessary the particular parts or diffi- 
culties of the word that should be kept in mind by the 
pupil. Instead of saying merely, " Copy each word 
ten times," the teacher might say, " Copy the first two 

[82] 



INDEPENDENT STUDY AND REVIEWS 

words two times; the last two five times. Use each 
word in a sentence two times." Or she might say, 
"Copy the two hardest words ten times ; the rest five 
times. Use each word in a sentence two times." 

FURTHER SUGGESTIONS FOR SEAT WORK 

In the seat work the pupil should apply the knowl- 
edge of the methods of word study gained in the presen- 
tation exercise. It is especially important that he 
make the correct evaluation of words and of different 
parts of words. This will determine roughly the num- 
ber of times each word should be repeated and the part 
that should be emphasized in copying. As a check upon 
the thoroughness and accuracy of the child's work he 
may be required to underline the difficult words and 
parts of words. 

The seat work may be varied and made more intensive 
by combining other exercises with copying. Thus 
silent spelling or soft whispering may be used. The pu- 
pil spells to himself as he writes. 

In this work the pupil is not blindly following direc- 
tions. He is becoming conscious of the principles of 
learning spelling and is becoming accustomed to the use 
of the exercises and devices most approriate to this 
work. He is acquiring a knowledge and habit of word 
study that will be useful to him not only in school but 
through life. 

IMPORTANCE OF REVIEWS 

Retention, a perplexing problem. The matter of re- 
views is undoubtedly one of the most important and 
pressing problems in the teaching of spelling. That 
teachers generally secure a high degree of efficiency in 
the daily lesson is shown by the high percentages of cor- 

[83] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

rect spelling. The difficulty is in keeping this stand- 
ard of efficiency unimpaired for any considerable time 
and in making sure that the same standard will be 
maintained in the spontaneous written work. Children 
show remarkable facility in forgetting the spelling of 
words which at one time they apparently knew per- 
fectly, and give some evidence of a well-rounded faculty 
for misspelling when using well-known words in con- 
text. Teachers discover these facts to their chagrin 
and despair. The problem is chiefly one of selecting 
and timing reviews. 

Difficulty of measuring retention. The discomfiture 
of the teacher is considerably increased by the difficulty 
of accurately determining the retention of words. It is 
a simple task to determine the spelling efficiency of a 
class in the daily spelling lesson. But to determine 
how long children retain the correct spelling of a word, 
when they can use a word correctly and when they can- 
not use it correctly, is a very complex problem under 
actual schoolroom conditions. The difficulty of the 
work is enhanced by the fact that children do not act 
alike, and that to some extent different words present 
peculiar problems. 

In spite of the complexity of the problem much light 
could be thrown upon it by careful experimental investi- 
gations. Up to this time these investigations have not 
been made, so that we are left to feel our way among the 
byways and highways of current practices. 

A measure of review provided in all written work, 
The teaching of words most commonly used by children 
in their writing provides for a measure of review in the 
spontaneous written exercises of the ordinary school 
work, which was not secured when the uncommon and 
the technical words predominated. However, even the 

[84] 



INDEPENDENT STUDY AND REVIEWS 

common words do not occur with sufficient frequency to 
guarantee their complete mastery in this manner. It is 
necessary to provide for more frequent contact through 
special exercises if complete learning is to be realized 
for any considerable number of words. 

Maintaining a high standard of accuracy. In order 
that the usual work of the school may provide a real 
review, it is obvious that a high standard of accuracy in 
spelling must always be maintained. A great deal of 
good work in the spelling periods may be undone by a 
passive attitude on the part of the teacher toward the 
careless mistakes which occur in written exercises in 
other subjects. No double standard of accuracy can 
be maintained. There can be no habit of correct spell- 
ing in English if there is a habit of incorrect spelling in 
history and geography. 

REVIEW EXERCISES 

Review exercises to be largely written. The 
same principles hold in the selection of review ex- 
ercises as in the selection of exercises for inde- 
pendent study. Practical and theoretical considera- 
tions demand that review exercises should be largely 
written exercises. Clear, accurate impressions of 
words have been formed, appropriate connections have 
been made, words have been repeated attentively until 
the connections are made with some degree of readiness 
and a high degree of accuracy; it remains for reviews 
to bring learning to the stage of automatic use. The 
only use for ability to spell is found in writing sen- 
tences. Practical skill in spelling must be developed in 
the same manner. 

Disconnected sentences and short paragraphs. 
Written exercises for the most part will take the form 

[85] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

of dictated exercises, either as disconnected sentences 
or as short paragraphs. The latter more nearly con- 
form to the actual use of words in writing but require 
more elaborate preparation. A practical plan for the 
use of spontaneous compositions about a selected topic, 
involving the use of a particular group of words, has 
never been worked out. 

VARIETY IN REVIEW EXERCISES 

The need for securing variety and maintaining inter- 
est in the work, the time required to prepare dictation 
exercises where texts do not provide them, and other 
practical considerations have led teachers to adopt a 
variety of exercises for review work. In doing this we 
should bear in mind the specific purpose of reviews and 
should recognize the place and limitations of additional 
exercises. They should supplement, not take the place 
of, written contextual exercises. 

Oral spelling and writing words in columns. The 
more important supplementary exercises are oral spell- 
ing and the writing of isolated words from dictation. 
These exercises are frequently organized into contests 
of various sorts, in which child competes with child, row 
with row, boys with girls, grade with grade, school with 
school, etc. In recent times a more salutary form of 
competition has come into use ; namely, the competition 
of the child, group, or grade with its own record. 
Standard tests and scores will give the teacher some 
assistance in this work, but for the most part she will 
be compelled to make up her own tests from the words 
actually studied by the children. By the use of the 
graphical method of presenting results, the progress of 
the class may be made very clear and definite. Work of 
this sort proves extremely stimulating to children. 

[86] 



INDEPENDENT STUDY AND REVIEWS 



FREQUENCY OF REVIEWS 

The common practice. In timing reviews our knowl- 
edge is still limited to common practice and experience. 
Weekly, bimonthly, midyearly, and yearly reviews ap- 
pear to be popular. One of the recent spellers has this 
provision : " Every ninth week is a review of the pre- 
vious eight weeks. The more difficult words are given 
in heavy black type and are repeated over and over 
again." Cleveland is noted for its systematic and thor- 
ough scheme of reviews. The Cleveland plan is as fol- 
lows : " Each of the ten prominent words taught in- 
tensively in a week is listed as a subordinate word within 
the next two weeks, included in a spelling contest at the 
end of eight weeks, again in the annual contest at the 
end of the school year, and again as a subordinate word 
in the following year's work, used five times, in all, 
within two years' work." Other spellers and teachers 
prefer continuous reviews by making a few words each 
day the basis of review work. 

Uncertainty in our present knowledge. As in most 
other respects, there is little agreement among spellers 
in the timing of reviews. The authority for the plan of 
reviews is usually not given. Where the plan of reviews 
is disclosed, the suggestions that are offered are fre- 
quently vague and indefinite. 

Pedagogical suggestions from other sources are of a 
similar character. The most common precept is, " Re- 
view frequently." 

Two factors to he considered: the grade of the pupil 
and the difficulty of the word. Two factors which need 
to be considered in planning reviews are the grade or 
the age of the pupil, and the difficulty of the word. A 
little observation and experience with children will show 

[87] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

that words must be repeated more frequently in the 
lower grades than in the upper grades. The exact de- 
termination of what the different requirements in the 
several grades are is a problem for the future. Like- 
wise the inequality in the difficulty and familiarity of 
words creates peculiar problems which must be consid- 
ered and definitely provided for. Difficult or unfamiliar 
words need to be reviewed more frequently. Ideally 
each word would be considered by itself, but practically 
it may be found best to group words for review. 

SUMMARY 

1. Independent study and reviews provide the repeti- 
tion necessary to automatic control. 

£. Independent study should consist largely of writ- 
ing words in sentences. 

3. Assignments of seat work should be definite and 
specific. 

4. A high standard of accuracy of spelling should be 
maintained in all written work. 

5. Reviews should consist of written exercises, with 
oral exercises for variety. 

6. Our present knowledge about timing reviews is 
limited and uncertain. The most common precept and 
example is, " Review frequently." 



[88] 



CHAPTER SIX 

The Prevention and Treatment of Errors 

THERE is an old adage that all you need in order 
to spell correctly is a conscience and a dictionary. 
There is an important truth in this saying, but not just 
the one that is apparent to the popular mind. " Con- 
science " is taken to include a knowledge of right and 
wrong as well as a desire to do right. That is, in addi- 
tion to its admonitory function conscience is supposed 
to tell one what to do and what not to do. In discus- 
sions of ethical principles the distinctions between these 
two aspects of conscience have been made clear. It is 
recognized that conscience never can tell one what he 
should do and what he should not do. This knowledge 
of right and wrong is a product of tradition, education, 
custom. Conscience is simply a constraining force, a 
desire, a feeling that one ought to do what he knows is 
right. The same distinction and the same principles 
apply exactly to spelling. We have to distinguish be- 
tween the knowledge of correct spelling and the desire 
to spell correctly. They present two entirely different 
problems to the teacher. 

SPELLING CONSCIENCE 

Conscience-motive-correlation and use. A feeling of 
duty in connection with spelling may be developed by 
giving motive power to the work. This is done, in the 
first place, by tying up spelling with immediate interests 
and activities, whether of the school or of life outside of 
the school. For this purpose all the activities of the 
child's life where writing is a means of communication 
or expression may be drawn upon. The ability to write 

[89] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

a friendly letter is frequently an accomplishment highly 
valued by young children. Notes of invitation to 
parties, communications between pupils and grades, cor- 
respondence with children in another locality, and or- 
ders for goods illustrate the exercises that may be 
used. 

Stunts; contests; games; fear. Failure to impress 
children with the vital moral values of spelling leads to 
the adoption of other devices and activities more closely 
connected with the child's primitive instincts and inter- 
ests. Some children will like spelling for its own sake. 
The mental activity which it requires is inherently at- 
tractive. Others find in spelling an opportunity for an 
exercise of their own powers, a test of strength, a feel- 
ing of mastery. To these children the spelling lesson as 
a kind of stunt will be attractive. The occasional use 
of this device will appeal particularly to the brighter 
children. It involves the setting up of a definite task, 
fraught with some special difficulty and requiring un- 
usual concentration and effort. Thus five spelling " de- 
mons " may be assigned for mastery in a single lesson ; 
or the word too may be used correctly in a written 
sentence by every member of the class. Third, children 
like to measure themselves by other people. Numerous 
forms of contests may be devised in which individuals 
and groups are pitted against each other. Fourth, the 
play tendency is universal. Devices involving the dra- 
matic or play element will appeal to children, partic- 
ularly in the lower grades. Interest is added if there is 
an element of chance or myster/, as in guessing games. 
Fifth, we cannot fail to mention two other motives; 
namely, the desire to avoid the disapproval of teacher 
and associates, and the fear of punishment. Learning 
under compulsion makes the work disagreeable for both 

[90] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

pupil and teacher, and the modern school tends to min- 
imize the need for it by better teaching and by a more 
skillful and sympathetic handling of children. 

Correct spelling, a condition of social efficiency. A 
third source of motives is found in pointing out the re- 
lation of spelling efficiency to remoter activities of life. 
The study of spelling in itself may be a bore, but if it 
can be shown to have a relation to the realization of 
desired ends, unusual interest and enthusiasm may be 
developed. A boy's natural dislike for the spelling rou- 
tine may be overcome by showing the importance of a 
knowledge of correct spelling in securing a coveted posi- 
tion. It is a simple matter to point out the emphasis 
which employers in the local stores place upon attain- 
ments in the fundamental branches when choosing a 
clerk. Similarly, the professions, the conduct of a 
trade or business, and much shop work demand a knowl- 
edge of spelling. Finally, the proper conduct of the 
simple business affairs of ordinary life and the duties 
of citizenship require a thorough knowledge of a few 
words if not a large spelling vocabulary. 

Spelling, a condition of social approval. Correct 
spelling is a condition of social approval as well as 
social efficiency. It is an approved custom, as much a 
mark of respectability as good manners. In a friendly 
letter a misspelling is a cause for deep concern. In a 
business letter it is inexcusable. Those who wish to 
maintain a respectable standing among their friends 
and business associates must put a check upon the idio- 
syncrasies of their orthography. 

SPELLING CONSCIOUSNESS 

Awareness of correct and of incorrect spelling. An 
earnest desire to spell accurately is a primary requisite 

[91] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

to the prevention of errors, but it is futile unless supple- 
mented by an awareness of correct and of incorrect 
spelling. This has been termed the " spelling con- 
sciousness." If a child knows a word and knows that 
he knows it, he can use it with confidence; and if he 
knows that he does not know it or if he is doubtful about 
the spelling, he can check his opinion by some author- 
ity before using the word ; but if he does not know when 
he is spelling a word correctly, he is helpless. The 
practical questions are: Do children know when they 
spell words correctly or incorrectly? How may a 
spelling consciousness be developed? 

Recently an investigation by W. H. McFarland of 
the University of Iowa came to my attention, in which 
the main conclusion seemed to be, " A child does not us- 
ually know when he can spell a word and when he can- 
not." H. G. Lull 1 of the Kansas State Normal School, 
who reported the investigation, disagreed with the 
statement of the author. The conclusion seemed to 
me, also, contrary to the opinion of teachers and to my 
knowledge of children. 

An experiment hy the author. To help clear up the 
confusion in my own mind I devised a dictation exercise 
of approximately 100 common words, including 42 test 
words of considerable spelling difficulty. This test was 
given to Grades IV, VI, and VIII. A similar test was 
given to Grade V. After dictation, without any chance 
for correction, the children were required to mark each 
written word as follows: ( v/) if they were sure that 
the word was spelled correctly, (X) if they were sure 
that the word was spelled incorrectly, and (D) if they 

i Lull, H. G., " A Plan for Developing a Spelling Conscious- 
ness." Elementary School Journal, Vol. XVII, 1917, pages 355- 
361. 

[92] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

were doubtful about the spelling of the word. There 
was an aggregate of 10,567 spellings (100 pupils); 
8803 words were spelled correctly ; of this number 8569 
were judged 6i right," 27 " wrong," and 207 " doubt- 
ful." 1764 words were spelled incorrectly; of this 
number, 645 were judged " right," 545 " wrong," and 
544 " doubtful." 

There were two chances to make a wrong judgment, 
calling right words " wrong " and wrong words " right." 
The mistakes in judgment were nearly all of the latter 
sort. The total number of wrong judgments was 702, 
or 7 per cent. When the 42 test words only were con- 
sidered, the percentage rose to IS. Of the 751 words 
doubted, 544 or over 72 per cent were incorrect. 

Conclusions. The results of the experiment indicate 
clearly that the children knew when they spelled words 
correctly. Their judgment was in error or in doubt 
less than three times in a hundred. It is not so clear 
that the children knew when they spelled incorrectly. 
Nearly 4 misspelled words in 10 (38 per cent) were 
judged " correct." Of the rest as many were 
" doubted " as were judged " wrong." 

We must remember in interpreting the results of the 
experiment that we are dealing with children who had 
had no instruction or training in judging their own 
work and who had never taken a test of this kind before. 
No doubt children's judgments will improve with in- 
struction and practice, but no experiments have been 
made to determine what extent of improvement may be 
expected, how soon a high degree of accuracy of judg- 
ment may be developed, or what plan is the best for 
securing improvement. However, because of the im- 
portance of the matter some suggestions along this line 
may be ventured. 

[93] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



DEVELOPMENT OF A SPELLING CONSCIOUSNESS 

Problems. The results of our experiment suggest, 
first, that in the development of a spelling consciousness 
our chief emphasis should be placed upon an adequate 
initial presentation. Children usually recognize the 
fact when they spell words correctly, but misspellings 
very frequently are allowed to pass unnoticed. Sec- 
ond, our particular and immediate problem is to teach 
children to Jcnow when they spell words wrongly. 

Strong original presentation as a measure of preven- 
tion. The development of a spelling consciousness is 
effected, primarily, through getting a strong positive 
impression of the correct form of a word in presentation 
and the frequent repetition and use of this form while it 
is positively known, until all danger of vagueness and 
uncertainty is past. All that part of the previous work 
dealing with selecting and emphasizing the difficult 
words and parts of words will give to the child the 
initiative, the power, and the habit of directing his own 
work, which will be very useful at this stage of his 
progress. 

Looking up doubtful words. One other principle of 
a general preventive nature is highly important for the 
preservation of a keen sensitiveness to correctness of 
spelling ; that is, never take a chance in spelling a word 
about which you have any doubt. There is nothing 
that more quickly and surely undermines the security 
of the spelling consciousness. A mistake made through 
carelessness will be repeated with increasing readiness, 
until all feeling of certainty as to the correct form of 
spelling is lost. This appears to be the most frequent 
source of confusion in judging the misspelling of words. 
The unusual and unfamiliar words are not nearly so 

[94] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

troublesome to children as are the common everyday 
words which are spelled incorrectly from habit. Such 
words as too (to) and stopping (stoping) present the 
most difficult problems for correct judging. 

When in doubt about the spelling of a word children 
should be taught to use the dictionary or, in the lowest 
grades, to consult the teacher. Our test shows that 
this habit would have prevented nearly two thirds of 
the spelling errors. 

If children gain strong, vivid impressions of the cor- 
rect spelling of words and form the habit of looking 
up every word when it is first doubted, errors will be 
reduced to the minimum. 

Developing a consciousness of incorrect spelling. 
However effective these preventive measures may be in 
the future, we are beset at the present time with the task 
of developing in children a clearer consciousness of in- 
correct spelling. To this end children may be required 
to check their own papers for correctness of spelling be- 
fore handing them in. The three judgments, correct, 
incorrect, and doubtful, cover all possible cases and em- 
body as fine distinctions as may be expected of elemen- 
tary school children. The marks (V) correct, (X) 
incorrect, and (D) doubtful are simple and to some ex- 
tent standardized. Second, further weight may be 
given to correct judging by marking the correctness of 
judgment as well as the correctness of spelling. It 
probably will not be necessary to continue these exer- 
cises for a long time. The aim is to develop a con- 
sciousness of correct and of incorrect spelling, and the 
habit of checking the correctness of spelling in writing, 
with a view to the prevention and correction of spelling 
errors. When this end has been realized as shown by 
the correctness of the judgments, the work may be dis- 

[95] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

continued. Third, there should be provision for addi- 
tional study of words doubted as well as of words 
misspelled. If the same words are doubted by a large 
number of the class, they may well be placed in the class 
word list ; if not, they will be placed more profitably in 
individual word lists for special study and review. 

TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

An ever present problem. In spite of the best ef- 
forts that can be put forth, it is found impossible to 
prevent all errors. They can be reduced in number by 
perfecting methods of presentation and review, and by 
developing systematic habits of word study, but they 
cannot be done away with entirely. There are some 
pupils, indeed, who seem to reach practical perfection 
in spelling, who seem never to miss a word, but there are 
always others who persist in making mistakes. Dealing 
with misspelling is a problem that every teacher has to 
face. 

Some light will be thrown upon this problem by a con- 
sideration of the nature and causes of errors, and by 
reviewing the results of schoolroom experience and ex- 
periments with methods of correction. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS 

Confusion of two principles of classification. Nu- 
merous attempts to classify the errors that children 
make have failed to distinguish two separate problems ; 
namely, the description of the frequencies of the differ- 
ent kinds of errors, such as the substitution of n for m, 
and the grouping of these errors according to certain 
presumed causes. The first is a matter of recording 
an objective fact. The other is an attempt to state 
the psychological cause for this fact. 

[96] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

Although quite different, both are important for the 
teacher. A knowledge of the cause of errors will de- 
termine fundamentally our method of treatment. Our 
treatment will be radically different, for example, ac- 
cording as errors are due to a slip of the pen or to a 
wrong impression of the word. A knowledge of the 
common mistakes that children make will enable us to 
emphasize the vital parts of words in correction as also 
in teaching, and will help us to determine the causes of 
spelling errors. 

Errors that children make. As an objective state- 
ment of the several kinds of mistakes that children ac- 
tually make, Cornman's classification is both consistent 
and thorough. 2 It is as follows : 

CLASSIFICATION OF SPELLING ERRORS CORNMAN 3 

I. Motor incoordination 483 

All those classes of errors whose commission 
seems to have been predominantly by defect in 
motor process. 
a. Omission — hoase (hoarse), Main (Maine), 

etc 104 

h. Addition — wolfe (wolf), etc 034 

c. Change, substitution or illegibility leading 

to confusion 080 

d. M and N — swin (swim) 168 

e. Transposition — aminal (animal). Literal 

or syllabic 076 

f. Wrong letter doubled — speel (spell) etc.. . .010 

g. Attraction — Sensorimotor, roap (rope) fol- 

lows soap 098 

2 See also the classification of G. Brandenburg, "The Spelling 
Ability of University Students." School and Society, Vol. VII, 
1917, pages 26-29. 

s Cornman, O. P., Spelling in the Elementary School, 1902, pages 
19-45. 

[97] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

h. Attraction — Ideomotor. A letter or ar- 
rangement of letters in a succeeding word 
calls out a wrong form — groop (group) 
precedes troop 012 

II. Complication — amanole {animal) 022 

III. Sensory incoordination 494 

(1) Phonetic. 

a. Standard — " Wensday," " scolar ". . .114 

b. Local and individual — " chimley," 

" dest " .082 

(2) Confusing — confusing alternatives. 

a. ie, ei; tion, sion; or, er, ar; lv, y 

(also al, le; ent, ant; se, ce, ze; 
ance, ence) 136 

b. Doubling — Using double letters for 

single letters — " Hellen," " gass " .046 

c. Non-doubling — " galons/' " weding " .050 

(3) Unclassified, Everything else — " Seuyl- 

kill/' " handerchief " 064 

Gill's classification. Another classification, by Gill, 4 
emphasizes the predominance of silent letters in spelling 
errors. The classification follows : 

School X 

1. Omission of letters 

a. Silent 28.0 

b. Sounded 8.6 

2. Insertion of letters 

a. Silent 29,9 

b. Sounded 3.5 

Total due to silent letters 57.9 

3. Confusion of vowels 11.7 

4. Inversions 10.5 

9. Other cases 7.8 

* Gill, E. J., " The Teaching of Spelling." Journal of Experi- 
mental Pedagogy, Vol. I, 1912, pages 310-319. 

[98] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

Common types of errors. The teachers who have 
taken the pains to observe what kinds of errors chil- 
dren make in spelling will find in the first classification 
many familiar types. Such are: the omission of let- 
ters, substitutions, the confusion of m and n, the trans- 
position of letters, phonetic spelling, confusion of alter- 
native vowels, doubling and non-doubling of letters. 
The second classification shows in a striking manner the 
prominence of silent letters in spelling errors ; also, the 
importance of the confusion of vowels and inversions. 
The figures in the tables represent the number of times 
per hundred or per thousand that each type of error 
occurred. 

ERRORS DUE TO THE IRREGULARITIES OF THE 
ENGLISH SPELLING 

These tabular classifications of errors according to 
the character of the mistake bring out one fundamental 
reason for the great difficulty which we experience in 
teaching spelling; that is, the unphonetic character of 
the English spelling. Gill shows that about 70 per 
cent of children's errors are attributable to this cause 
alone. Another investigator put the estimate at 76 per 
cent. According to Gill, about 58 per cent of these 
errors are due to the omission and insertion of silent 
letters. Other potent causes of misspelling are the 
confusion of letters having the same sound, and obscure 
and elided vowels, as a in separate. 

CHANCE ERRORS 

Classifications according to the probable cause of 
misspelling bring out more clearly the pedagogical pos- 
sibilities of the treatment of errors. Such a classifica- 
tion is that of Cornman, when the headings are regarded. 

[99] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

The simplest classification upon which there is substan- 
tial agreement includes, first, the errors that are due to 
chance or a slip of the pen, and second, the errors due 
to ignorance of the word. The first class of errors is 
variously described as those due to a slip of the pen, 
carelessness, inattention, motor incoordination, or de- 
fective capacity for expression. In case of errors of 
this class the child knows how the word should be spelled 
when he stops to think, but the mental conditions at the 
time of writing are such that accidental errors creep 
in. The mind may be wandering aimlessly away from 
the work at hand, or it may be occupied with other 
phases of the work than the mere ordering of letters in 
words. Errors due to mental wandering of the first 
sort are certainly reprehensible and deserve the serious 
attention of the teacher, but they are hard to distinguish 
from errors of the other sort, those due to mental ab- 
sorption. 

Correction by the pupil. Errors of this class are not 
to be taken as seriously as errors due to ignorance, yet 
they should not be neglected. This is the kind of 
error that should be discovered and corrected imme- 
diately upon reading a paper after writing. Re-read- 
ing his own paper for chance mistakes should become 
a habit with the child. Exercises in judging the accu- 
racy of spelling as described above will help him to form 
this habit. If children form the habit of correcting 
all possible mistakes in their written work before hand- 
ing it in, their familiarity with the correct forms of 
words Will constantly increase, and with this increased 
familiarity with words the probability of chance mis- 
takes will grow less and less. On the other hand, if 
mistakes are allowed to stand uncorrected they will be 
repeated with greater ease each time until the habit of 

[100] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

incorrect spelling is fixed and the child does not know 
when he is spelling incorrectly. 

Identifying errors. The accurate identification of 
errors due to carelessness by simple inspection is not an 
easy task; yet judgment is a large factor. The type 
of error is recognized by all teachers. We frequently 
hear a teacher say, " Why did you make that mistake? 
You know better than that." Picking out all the errors 
that belong to this group is another matter. The 
teacher will be aided in this work by her knowledge of 
the individual pupils and of the common types of errors. 
The types of errors commonly assigned to this class 
are: words not completed, words wrongly completed, 
omissions, additions, substitutions of letters and words, 
transpositions, wrong letter doubled, and errors due 
to the association with other words, such as roap 
(rope), after soap. They constitute about one half of 
all errors that are made in spelling. 

Hollingworth's classification. A helpful classifica- 
tion of these errors, prepared by Dr. Leta S. Holling- 
worth, 5 is as follows: 

(a) Errors which result from automatically copying the 
ending of a word that is just above the word being spelled; 
e.g., " close* 

clock*." 

(b) Errors which result from automatically including a 
syllable of a word that is to follow the word being written, 
and which is therefore coming " to mind " as that word is 
being finished; e.g., "postcard card." 

(c) Errors which result from a tendency to omit, in 
written spelling, one of two letters which require a similar 
motor response for their execution; e.g., " sd " for "sad," 
and " gld " for " glad." 

5 Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology of Special Disability 
in Spelling, 1918, pages 38-39. 

[ ioi ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

(J) Errors which result from writing a letter that has 
common kinesthetic elements instead of the correct letter; 
e.g., " dod " for " dog," and " forn " for " form." 

(e) Errors which result from substituting a letter that 
has common visual elements instead of the required letter; 
e -gv " goiny " for " going/' and " store-heeper " for " store- 
keeper." 

(/) Errors (very common) which result from substitut- 
ing a letter that has common phonetic elements for the re- 
quired letter; e.g., " celect " for " select." 

(g) Errors which result from transposing two adjacent 
letters, as is so often done in typewriting; e.g., " Indain " for 
" Indian," and " mintue " for " minute." 

(h) Errors which result from perseveration of an ele- 
ment, especially a dominant element, in a word just used; 
e.g., " the theeth " for " the teeth." 

(i) Errors which result from a tendency to omit the last 
letter of the word being written, when the initial letter of 
the next word has the same or a similar sound; e.g., " ad- 
vise to " for " advised to." 

(j) Errors due to doubling the wrong letter in a word 
which contains a doubled letter; e.g., " frezze," for 
" freeze." 

Idiosyncrasies. Dr. Hollingworth 6 points out an- 
other kind of error akin to " lapsing," but not identi- 
cal with it. " This is the marked tendency of an occa- 
sional child to commit the same characteristic blunder 
over and over again ; that is, the child has an idiosyn- 
crasy for certain kinds of errors." Examples of these 
idiosyncrasies are the insertion of intrusive letters, such 
as n in counsin and wrinting; and adding final e to 
words, as in begane, alsoe, wliome. The investigation 
was not extensive enough to show the commonness of 
this fault. 

6 Op. cit., page 40. 
[102] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

ERRORS DUE TO IGNORANCE OF THE WORD 

Kinds. The other class of spelling errors includes 
those due to the lack of knowledge or familiarity with 
the word. Through inexperience or through confusion 
with other words the child has received a wrong impres- 
sion of the word or no definite impression at all. Mis- 
takes of this kind the child cannot correct for himself. 
They constitute in large part the errors due to the 
phonetic spelling of unphonetic words. Such misspell- 
ings as Wensday, scolar, oposed, are of this character. 
Mispronunciations, also, tend to misspelling in the di- 
rection of phonetic translation, such as chimley, dest, 
bringin. Another source of errors is the confusion of 
equivalent letters and groups of letters, such as ie, ei; 
er, or, ar; etc. Cornman also includes in this list er- 
rors of non-doubling, such as galons, weding; and of 
doubling, such as, Hellen, gass. 

Treatment. Errors of this class, constituting ap- 
proximately one half of all spelling errors, are due to 
the faulty apprehension of words. They should be 
corrected not by more drill, as was usual in older prac- 
tice, but by a re-presentation of the word from the be- 
ginning. An error is an indication that the original 
presentation has been a failure in some particular and 
that a new impression of the word must be made on the 
child's mind. The re-presentation should include all of 
the steps of the original presentation, if necessary, but 
the particular points of difficulty should receive special 
emphasis. Thus if the error is one of phonetic spelling, 
the visual phase of presentation is important, partic- 
ularly that part which has to do with associating the 
obscure and difficult part of the word with a word of 
similar difficulty. Where this is not possible the child 

[ 103 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

must learn the word by sheer force of sense memory. 
If the mistake is due to faulty pronunciation, then the 
correct form of pronunciation should be emphasized. 
Or, if the mistake is one of confusing vowels and diph- 
thongs, then visual presentation is again to be empha- 
sized and associations made where possible. Thus the 
ei in neither, a common mistake, may be associated with 
the ei of either, a word that is seldom misspelled. Er- 
rors of doubling and of non-doubling appear to be due 
to phonetic spelling and confusion with other words in 
which the visual analysis of the word is at fault. The 
visual form of the word should be re-presented, with 
special emphasis upon syllables. 

THE CORRECTION OF SPELLING ERRORS 

As far as possible in the detailed correction of errors 
the teacher should follow the general principles of the 
treatment of errors. The child should be given time to 
go over his spelling and composition paper before hand- 
ing it in for final correction and grading. Children 
should show gradually increasing skill in this work. 

Errors remaining on the papers passed in must be 
handled by the teacher. The most effective method of 
correcting errors is a nice problem for experimenta- 
tion. As yet it has not been thoroughly investigated. 
We may say that words missed by a large number of 
the pupils, say one fifth of the class, should be carried 
over into the next lesson and re-presented as described 
above. Words missed by only a few pupils must for the 
most part be taken up with the individual pupils. It 
has been found that crossing out the misspelled word, 
writing the correct form above, and returning the paper 
to the pupil for copying gives satisfactory results. In 
[104] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

another case it was found that simply calling attention 
to misspelled words by conspicuous marking is negli- 
gible in results. As far as possible the teacher should 
give to the pupils directions governing the corrective 
work. The suggestions should be brief and specific, 
calling attention to the child's particular difficulty with 
the word and telling him how this difficulty is to be over- 
come. The word should be corrected at once, included 
as a part of the pupil's next day's spelling lesson, and 
placed on the individual word list for special review. 
The teacher calls for special words after the regular 
lesson. 

CHEONIC BAD SPELLERS 

In spelling, as in almost every school subject, the 
teacher has to deal with some pupils who are especially 
deficient in ability to learn the subject. The problem 
will be simplified in some cases by disregarding the chil- 
dren who are out-and-out mental defectives, — for ex- 
ample, those whose mental quotient is 70 or below ac- 
cording to Terman. Unfortunately these children are 
still to be found in classrooms with other children. 
They should be disregarded in planning curricula and 
methods, as they are mentally disqualified for the reg- 
ular work of the school. The peculiar problem of the 
teacher is to deal with those children who range between 
very slow and very bright in other subjects but who are 
wanting in spelling ability. Spelling ability is a spe- 
cialized mental function, and there are pupils in every 
class who are " born short " in this particular. 

Causes of bad spelling. The limited study of this 
group of children has resulted in attributing bad spell- 
ing to a variety of causes. Among these are: inaccu- 
rate observation, defective memory, dependence upon 

[105] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

association processes, poor observation, physical de- 
fects, and poor methods of teaching. 

Physical defects. With the exception of physical 
defects, the treatments of these topics have been highly 
speculative and conjectural. Several investigators 
have found that there is frequently a close relationship 
between poor spelling and some physical defect. As a 
result of a close investigation of five adult " incor- 
rigible bad-spellers," Wychoff 7 says, " The tests for 
optical defects showed astigmatism in four of the poor 
spellers, short sight in one, normal vision in one only 
of the five." Witmer's 8 extended ^treatment of the 
clinical case of a boy apparently unable to acquire the 
correct spelling of English words, together with his ob- 
servation of a large number of similar cases, led him 
to the same conclusion. He says, " I have found in 
such cases that the chronic bad spelling is invariably 
associated with some form of defective vision." 

Dr. Hollingworth'' s investigation. 9 Recently the 
whole question of the psychology of bad spelling has 
been subjected to an elaborate and painstaking inves- 
tigation by Dr. Leta S. Hollingworth at Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University. The investigation gives val- 
uable evidence on the mental processes involved in learn- 
ing to spell, the order in which these processes occur, the 
relation of spelling ability to general intelligence, the 
causes or determinants of error in spelling, the mean- 
ing and extent of special disability in spelling, and the 
possibilities of increase in efficiency. 

Certain results of this illuminating study have been 

7 Wychoff, A. E., "Constitutional Bad Spellers." Pedagogical 
Seminary, Vol. II, 1892, pages 448-451. 

s Witmer, L., " A Case of Chronic Bad Spelling." Psychological 
Clinic, Vol. I, 1907, pages 53-64. 

» Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit. 

[106] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

referred to in appropriate places in the text. We are 
concerned here, primarily, with the facts regarding ab- 
normally bad spellers. 

What is disability in spelling? The author's view is 
that the bad speller is not different in kind from spellers 
in general. That is, he does not form a " separate in- 
tellectual species, set apart from ' normals ' by some 
definite pathological condition, but for which he would 
have been ' normal.' " Rather, the difference between 
spellers in general and bad spellers is one of degree. 
They constitute the " fag end " of the normal distribu- 
tion of spelling ability. 

Extent of disability in spelling. The extent of 
special disability in spelling, taken by the author to 
mean " an innate inability to form some or all of the 
special bonds requisite for spelling words," is not very 
great. The author concludes that about 2 per cent of 
school children have a special disability in spelling suffi- 
cient to hinder them in their school progress. 

Progress in spelling efficiency. Children of this 
group make little progress in acquiring spelling, al- 
though normally intelligent and hard working, and with- 
out visual or auditory defects. Two fifth-grade pupils 
at the end of 20 weeks' instruction amounting to 1 hour 
per day had less spelling ability than an 8-year-old 
child. It is doubtful whether the gain is worth the 
effort required of pupil and teacher, and whether the 
child should be required to pursue the regular course of 
instruction. 

Pedagogical measures. u Since they are continuous 
with children in general in such ability, it follows that, 
broadly speaking, they may be taught in the same way 
and by the same methods which are most advanta- 
geously employed with children at large." However, 

[ 107 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

the work of the teacher will be greatly facilitated by 
psychological analysis which will show what particular 
bonds or associations are weak or wanting. Exercises 
should be selected which are most appropriate to the 
particular deficiency. 

Other causes of poor spelling. The investigation led 
the author to conclude that over 80 per cent of bad 
spelling in the Experimental Class of eighteen pupils 
was due to other causes than special disability in spell- 
ing. These causes are not discussed in detail, but are 
listed as follows : general intellectual weakness, lack of 
interest, distaste for mental drudgery, intellectual in- 
ertia, previous learning in a foreign language, sensory 
defects, and bad handwriting. 

Backward pupils. This group of children is dis- 
tinguishable from the smaller group by their relatively 
greater educability. The cause of misspelling is not a 
congenital disability but a temporary physical defect or 
mental weakness which may be remedied by proper 
treatment. Thus, defect in vision may be improved by 
the use of eyeglasses, lack of interest may be overcome 
by suitable pedagogical devices, etc. The group em- 
braces those children who, although backward, hold a 
higher place in the scale of efficiency than the defective 
group and who have no discoverable special disabilities 
in spelling. 

Teaching these pupils is one of the most difficult and 
trying problems which the teacher has to solve. All of 
her pedagogical insight and skill will be required to 
solve it successfully. Class methods will have to be 
supplemented if not replaced by appeal to the child's 
personal interest and peculiarities. To determine the 
cause of misspelling is the first step. The teacher will 
be greatly assisted in this by an expert psychologist. 
[108] 



THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ERRORS 

The next step is to select and apply appropriate reme- 
dies. These will be suggested in general by the causes 
of misspelling in each particular case, but it will be 
necessary for the teacher to work out the detailed plans 
and devices. 

SUMMARY 

1. Errors will be prevented in large measure by ren- 
dering spelling vitally significant to the child, and by 
developing a spelling consciousness. 

£. Significance and interest are attached to spelling 
by applying it in forms of written work with which the 
child is vitally concerned, by showing its practical util- 
ity in adult life, and by the use of contests and games. 

S. Experiments show that children know when they 
spell words correctly, but that their knowledge of in- 
correct spelling is extremely vague. 

4. Hence, in the development of a spelling conscious- 
ness emphasis should be placed upon adequate initial 
presentation and upon looking up doubtful words. 

5. Our particular and immediate task is to teach 
children to know when they spell words incorrectly. 

6. Errors may be divided roughly into two classes : 
chance errors, or slips of the pen, and those made 
through ignorance of the word. 

7. Errors of the first class, such as the omission, 
substitution, and transposition of letters, should be dis- 
covered and corrected by the pupil before handing in his 
written work. 

8. Errors of the second class should be corrected 
by re-presentation, not repetition. 

9. Words missed by a large number of pupils should 
be carried over into the next lesson. Other errors must 
be treated individually. 

[109] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

10. A small per cent of poor spelling is due to innate 
disabilities. Children having such disabilities should 
be excused from the regular spelling work. 

11. By far the larger part of poor spelling is due to 
remediable causes, such as temporary physical disabil- 
ity, general intellectual weakness, and lack of interest. 
As far as possible these causes should be discovered 
and removed. 



[110] 



CHAPTER SEVEN 
Testing 

IN the ordinary course of the daily work it is neces- 
sary for the teacher to determine the efficiency of 
her instruction, to locate difficult words, to determine 
their particular difficulties, to find when words have been 
learned and where further instruction or drill is needed, 
to locate individuals who need special help and to de- 
termine the particular help needed. 

PRELIMINAKY TEST 

Purpose, To accomplish these things it is neces- 
sary to use tests of various kinds. One of these is the 
preliminary test. The preliminary test is a test given 
before instruction is begun, to find out what words chil- 
dren already know, what words are difficult, how time 
should be distributed among the words of the lesson, 
and what the particular spelling difficulties of the words 
are. 

Nature. For the saving of time and for convenience 
in marking, the preliminary test should consist of the 
dictation of isolated words. It will be found convenient 
also to include several days' lessons in one test. The 
test should be given some time before the actual teach- 
ing of words, in order to give time for the impressions 
of words incorrectly spelled to die out. We found it 
well to include in the preliminary test the new words for 
a week and to give the test on the Friday preceding the 
week in which the words were taught. Good reasons can 
be given for including a larger number of words in the 
preliminary test and increasing the interval between this 

cm] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

test and the actual presentation of the words. This in- 
terval might well be 4 to 6 weeks instead of 1 week. 

Correcting papers. For the correction of the pa- 
pers the most expeditious method that will give accurate 
results should be used. Above the third grade we have 
found that the teacher can spell the words back to the 
children and rely upon their judgment and honesty for 
satisfactory marking. In the third grade, in dealing 
with foreign children, we find that the teacher must do 
most of the work of correcting. When words are 
spelled back to the children, it should be made clear that 
no grade will be given on the work; in fact, it is not 
necessary to place names on the papers. The teacher 
may check the accuracy of the children's work by re- 
marking a set of papers once in a while. If careless- 
ness or inaccuracy is observed, the method should be 
changed. 

Making a record of errors. In recording errors, 
also, as much work as possible should be placed upon 
the children. Of course, the information desired is the 
number of times each word was misspelled. If the chil- 
dren assist in checking the misspelled words, it is a sim- 
ple matter for the teacher to make a count of the errors 
by having all who missed a word raise their hands. The 
teacher records the results in her plan book. In the 
lowest grades the teacher may have to do this work 
for herself. The simplest way is to take a list of the 
words and go over the papers one by one, making a 
check mark each time a word is missed. 

Tabulated results — average word difficulties. The 
tabulated results of the preliminary test will consist of 
the number of times each word was misspelled. By 
comparing these with the number of pupils present, con- 
veniently placed at the top of the column, it will be 

[112] 



TESTING 

possible to determine the relative difficulty of each 
word. 

Common misspellings and sources of difficulty. One 
other fact is important for teaching; namely, the de- 
termination of the particular spelling difficulty of each 
word. To find this the teacher should look over the 
preliminary test papers for the most frequent form of 
misspelling or the part of the word causing the greatest 
difficulty. These may be placed conveniently on the 
lesson plan. 

Provision for emphasizing individual needs. In the 
preliminary tests, as also in the main and review tests, 
children may be taught to discover for themselves the 
hardest words as well as the parts of words causing the 
greatest difficulty. For this purpose individual word 
lists should be prepared, containing words missed in the 
preliminary test with common misspellings, and words 
missed and sources of errors in the review tests. 

MAIN TEST 

Following the instruction and drill periods it is advis- 
able that teachers give a test to determine the extent of 
learning, to find out where further drill is needed, and 
to discover what pupils need special help. It is not 
necessary that these be given each day. When the 
teacher becomes sure of her methods and results, the 
testing may take place once a week. 

Column test. It is customary to use a column test 
for this purpose. This practice is justified on the 
grounds of expediency rather than upon its pedagogical 
merits. As a measure of expediency it is defensible un- 
til a better and at the same time an equally practical 
method is found. The difficulties are that it does not 
show the child's skill in the contextual use of words and 

[113] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

that it does not give the child practice in using words 
in the way in which they will be used in life. 

Sentence or contextual test. The sentence or con- 
textual test has the advantages which the column test 
does not have, but it also has the disadvantage of being 
harder to prepare, mark, and score. If these difficulties 
can be avoided by some means which the individual 
teacher may devise or by satisfactory provisions in 
textbooks and courses of study, there is no question 
about the contextual test being a fairer and more val- 
uable method. 

Administrative details. In order to get clearer evi- 
dence of the thoroughness of the child's knowledge of 
the words, it is well for the main test to be given some 
time after the presentation and study periods and for 
the teacher to avoid artificial aids such as the unnatural 
pronunciation of words by syllables. As far as pos- 
sible the children should assist in marking papers as in 
the preliminary test, but greater caution is necessary 
here to avoid dishonesty, since the marks have an im- 
portant relation to the pupil's standing in school. As 
in the preliminary test, also, the number of times each 
word is misspelled should be noted and recorded. 
Sources of errors will be localized, then, both as to 
words and pupils, so that the more frequently mis- 
spelled words can be selected for further class study 
and the words missed by a few pupils can be treated 
individually. As before, the test papers will reveal pe- 
culiar tendencies and forms of misspelling. These will 
be useful to the teacher in the corrective work. 

KEVIEW TEST 

A third kind of test is necessary to determine the 
duration of the children's knowledge of words and to 
[114] 



TESTING 

give them further practice in the use of words. These 
tests should occur occasionally as the need for review- 
demands and should unquestionably be of the contex- 
tual sort. Our primary aim is to develop skill and fa- 
cility in the use of words. This can be done best by 
giving words in the way in which they are naturally 
used. The teacher will meet difficulties similar to those 
met in connection with the formation and use of the 
main tests, but school administrators and makers of 
courses of study give valuable assistance when the need 
is recognized. There is no reason why practical dic- 
tation exercises should not be presented regularly as 
parts of courses of study and textbooks on spelling. 

The suggestions on giving, marking, and scoring tests 
and the use of results, given in connection with the 
preliminary and main tests, are pertinent here. 

SUMMARY 

1. Three kinds of tests are distinguishable: prelim- 
inary, main, and review tests. 

2. The purpose of the preliminary test is to provide 
the teacher with accurate and detailed information as 
to the average and particular spelling difficulties of 
words before teaching. 

3. The main test follows the teaching exercise as a 
test of immediate recall. 

4. Review tests occur after longer intervals to show 
retention and to give children additional drill in the use 
of words. 

5. The main and review tests should be written con- 
textual exercises, although expediency at times favors 
the use of oral and written column exercises. 



[115] 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

The Measurement of Spelling Efficiency 

THE preliminary, daily, and review tests, described 
in the preceding chapter, serve very well the lim- 
ited purposes for which they are intended, but they do 
not make possible the comparison of different groups of 
children or the performances of the same group of 
children at different times. The tests consist of differ- 
ent words, and no attempt is made to secure lists of 
words of equal difficulty. Therefore any difference in 
results in the comparison of groups of children is quite 
as likely to be due to a difference in the difficulty of 
the tests as in the achievements of the several groups. 

Likewise the judgment of the teacher, the other ac- 
cepted means of determining the standing of pupils, 
while sufficiently accurate and reliable for certain pur- 
poses, has failed when put to the same tasks. 

With the recognition of the serious limitations of the 
older methods of determining children's achievement in 
spelling, there has come a clearer realization of un- 
solved, vital educational problems. We find the mod- 
ern teacher asking herself such questions as these: 
Does my class rank as high in spelling efficiency as other 
classes of the same grade? Do they show as much im- 
provement? What is the normal standing and what 
improvement may be expected of children of my grade? 
What is a better means of classifying children? How 
much time should be devoted to spelling? How should 
this time be distributed among the grades? What is 
the best method of presenting words? Is nationality 
an important factor in determining spelling efficiency? 
In addition to these problems, the supervisor and super- 
[116] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

mtendent are concerned with the rating of teachers and 
the manifold tasks of supervision. 

STANDARD TESTS AND SCALES 

The inadequacy of the old forms of testing and the 
pressing demands for the solution of important educa- 
tional problems have led to the development of finer 
instruments for measuring the spelling efficiency of chil- 
dren. The chief characteristics of these newer instru- 
ments of testing are the selection of a uniform list of 
words and the determination of an average score 
by giving them to large numbers of children of 
the same grade. In several conspicuous cases the 
further step was taken of arranging the words in steps 
of difficulty, forming a " scale." Finally, one investi- 
gator, Dr. Buckingham, related the words so scaled to 
a " zero point " of spelling ability, making it possible 
to use the times statement in comparing words and 
children. 

The Buckingham scale. To Dr. Buckingham x be- 
longs the credit of making the first important study of 
standardization in spelling. His particular problem 
was to develop a scale for measuring spelling ability. 
He prepared separate scales for each grade and one for 
all grades taken together. The material of the last, the 
general scale, consists of the 50 words of the Preferred 
Lists, and in addition 75 words of the Rice Test and 
50 words of the Easy 50-Word Test. The words of the 
Preferred Lists were selected for commonness from 
those words agreed upon by two or three of five popular 
spellers ; and second, for regularity of progression in 
difficulty through the grades, from a percentage not too 

i Buckingham, B. R., Spelling Ability: Its Measurement and 
Distribution, 1914. 

[117] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

low in the lower grades nor too high in the upper, as 
determined by actual testing. Each of these words 
has a place on the scale determined by the times with 
which it was spelled correctly in each grade, and is re- 
ferred to the zero point of spelling . ability as a point 
of reference. The intervals between the words are ir- 
regular but have a known value. The scaje may be used 
as a whole by selecting words to be spelled at equal in- 
tervals, and by grouping words so that the groups are 
equal or differ by equal amounts. 

The Ayres scale. The second study of importance is 
that of Dr. Ayres. 2 The study is an elaborate attempt 
to develop a practical spelling scale. One thousand 
words were selected on the basis of commonness from 
four important objective studies of the words used in 
the writing of children and adults, and were arranged 
in columns of difficulty as determined by the spellings 
of 70,000 school children. The columns are arranged 
in order of difficulty and vary in difficulty by equal 
steps. The per cent of times by which the words of 
each column were spelled correctly in several grades 
is given at the top. The scale may be used by making 
up tests from the various groups and comparing the re- 
sults with the standard scores. 

Ayres 9 10-word tests. Dr. Ayres prepared also a 
special set of standardized tests composed of ten words 
for each grade from the second to the eighth, inclusive. 3 
Each set of words is of such difficulty that 70 per cent 
of the children of the grade can spell them correctly. 
The set is used as a whole in testing the pupils of a 
grade. 

2 Ayres, L. P., A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling, 1915. 
« Ayres, L. P., "Tests in Spelling." The Public School of 
Springfield Survey, 1914, pages 71-74. 

[118] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

The Starch lists. A third study should be men- 
tioned, that of Professor Starch. 4 Six hundred words 
were selected at random from Webster's New Interna- 
tional Dictionary and were arranged in lists of one 
hundred words each. The lists are approximately 
equal in difficulty, and average results for a large num- 
ber of pupils are given. In spite of the elimination of 
all technical, scientific, and obsolete words, the lists con- 
tain many words which are entirely foreign to a child's 
vocabulary. Since they contain many words with 
which a child seldom or never comes into contact, the 
tests do not measure real spelling ability. As a meas- 
ure of the breadth of a child's vocabulary, they prob- 
ably have some value. 

UTILITY OF STANDARD TESTS 

Common test words provided. The value of these 
standard lists of words and scales appears in several 
particulars. First, they provide test words of assur- 
edly common use. This was determined by an objective 
analysis in Ayres' study and by a very careful selec- 
tion in Buckingham's study. The advantage gained in 
using such words is the greater chance for equality of 
familiarity in comparing different groups of children. 

Words of known difficulty provided. Second, the 
studies provide properly evaluated test material. The 
knowledge of the difficulty of words makes it possible to 
devise tests of uniform difficulty and related degrees of 
difficulty. This gives us a means of comparing groups 
and of measuring growth in spelling efficiency with 
greater accuracy than we have been able to do it here- 
tofore. 

* Starch, Daniel, "The Measurement of Efficiency in Spelling." 
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. VI, 1915, pages 167-186. 

[119] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

In such tests it is important to have a large number 
of words from which to choose, so as to avoid the effect 
of practice where the same material is used. Ayres' 
study allows greater freedom in the choice of words than 
Buckingham's, although the latter is to be supple- 
mented largely in the near future. 

Another advantage of evaluated test words is in the 
matter of marking. The failure to take into account 
the varying difficulties of words has been a frequent 
source of error in grading tests. It is impracticable 
to weight each word separately. By the use of these 
studies it is possible to make up tests with words of the 
same difficulty, and thus, in marking, all words may be 
given the same value. 

A more accurate comparison of different groups of 
children made possible. Third, the use of these tests 
makes it possible to compare one group with another 
where the same or different words are used. In the first 
instance where a uniform test is used the comparison is 
direct, although the words may vary considerably in 
difficulty for the several groups. However, the same 
result is secured where different lists have known de- 
grees and relationships of difficulty. The Ayres list 
renders it possible to make these comparisons with 
greater readiness ; the Buckingham list, with greater 
precision. 

"Standards'' of efficiency provided. Fourth, these 
tests provide average scores with which the standing of 
any group of children may be defined in terms of the 
achievement of a large number of children. The accu- 
racy of the comparison depends upon the degree of uni- 
formity of conditions in giving the test. Where the 
procedure is largely unknown, as in Ayres' study, com- 
parison is so much the more liable to be inexact. On the 

[120] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

other hand, Buckingham's thoroughness in maintaining 
and reporting uniform conditions of procedure makes 
it possible to have practical uniformity of administra- 
tive conditions. 

LIMITATIONS TO THE UTILITY OF STANDARD TESTS 

The practical value of these standard tests is chiefly 
in the ease and precision which they have contributed to 
the work of school supervision and administration. As 
aids to the teacher, they have not been so successful. 
As such they have a number of limitations. 

Lack of precision. In the first place, comparisons 
based upon these tests are not precise. Instead of be- 
ing compared with children of similar class and environ- 
ment, the child is measured by the achievement of a het- 
erogeneous group of children of various ages, races, na- 
tionalities, school conditions, home environments, and 
the like. The chance that the pupil in question is like 
the median or standard pupil of the scale in these par- 
ticulars is only one in many thousands. Yet, unless 
this is true, the test is not a fair one for him. 

The measurement of groups, such as grades and even 
schools, is usually to some extent unfair for the same 
reasons. Thus, scores made up of the average achieve- 
ments of all children of a cosmopolitan district is no 
standard with which to compare the efficiency of a grade 
or even a school of foreign children. This is particu- 
larly true in the lower grades, where the language handi- 
cap is greatest. To be perfectly accurate the group 
to be measured must be so large as to represent a fair 
selection from all classes and conditions of children in 
the standard test. This is so rarely the case that the 
chances are largely against getting a fair compari- 
son. 

[121] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Specific results of spelling instruction not measured. 
Second, scales do not necessarily measure the results of 
spelling instruction. This follows from the fact that 
many words occurring in the test have not been taught 
in the grade where the test is given. It is quite possible 
also that many of the words have not been taught lower 
in the grades. To the extent that this is true, the tests 
measure children's efficiency in picking up the spelling 
of words incidentally in connection with reading, writ- 
ing, etc., rather than their efficiency in learning words 
in the specific spelling drill. Ballou 5 says, " It is as 
a measure of spelling instruction that the scale (Ayres) 
is at fault." 

Specific growth in spelling efficiency not measured. 
Third, scales do not measure specific growth in spelling 
efficiency. To illustrate: a teacher cannot test her 
class in September and again in January and expect to 
get a mathematical statement of the class's improvement 
for the 20-week term. To determine the amount of 
improvement, she must find the growth of the class in 
ability to spell the words actually taught during the 
20 weeks. 

In attempting such a use of the Ayres scale, Holling- 
worth 6 found that according to the scale the children 
who were not instructed in spelling made as much im- 
provement as the specially instructed group. After 
pointing out the absurdity of this conclusion, she makes 
the following statement : " It is, therefore, psycho- 
logically impossible to measure increments of Spelling 
Ability, due to general instruction over a period of 

5 Ballon, F. W., " Measuring Boston's Spelling Ability by the 
Ayres Scale." School and Society, Vol. V, 1917, page 270. 

« Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology of Special Disability 
in Spelling, 1918, pages 63-66. 

[122] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

weeks, by means of the Ayres Spelling Scale. In order 
to increase the child's ability to spell the test words on 
the scale he must be taught those specific words." 

Scales expressed in terms of static efficiency rather 
than of growth in efficiency. A fourth practical limi- 
tation to the utility of standard tests is the expression 
of units of amount in terms of static efficiency rather 
than in terms of growth in efficiency. It is important 
for the teacher to know what degree of efficiency is to be 
expected of her grade, but it is more important for her 
to know how much improvement ought to be made dur- 
ing a stated period of instruction. Improving the 
spelling efficiency of her class is the primary concern of 
the teacher. An instrument which enables her to meas- 
ure the extent of her progress and sets up a goal to- 
ward which she may direct her efforts will render her 
an incalculable service. 

Teacher's attitude toward the movement. While, 
therefore, scales as constituted at present fail the 
teacher in the solution of the problems which to her are 
the most vital, the movement is still in its infancy and it 
has large possibilities for development. The fact that 
there is an ever increasing demand for the accurate eval- 
uation of her work and products, and that the present 
standardizing movement is a potential means of meet- 
ing this demand, suggests that teachers should give the 
largest possible support to the movement. At the same 
time, we should be critical of its weaknesses, with a view 
to getting more practical and efficient instruments of 
measurement. 

MISUSES OF SCALES AND STANDARD TESTS 

Confusing terms. In addition to the limitations 
mentioned in the preceding section, the use of standard 

[ 123 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

tests and scales is frequently misunderstood and abused. 
Confusion frequently arises through a misunderstand- 
ing of terms. 

In fact, the movement has been so beclouded with 
confusing terms and analogies, that the layman is abun- 
dantly justified in becoming a little muddled as to the 
legitimate use of the tests. Such terms as " standard " 
and " measure " suggest that there are degrees of effi- 
ciency which children of certain grades ought to reach, 
— for example, that an average of 84 in column J of the 
Ayres scale is a figure that ought to be attamed by any 
third-grade pupil. Of course, this is absurd. 

It would seem that to use standard tests intelligently 
it is necessary for the average person to bear in mind 
that, properly speaking, standard tests do not set forth 
standards at all; that to exceed the standard for the 
grade is not of itself meritorious ; that to fall below the 
standard may not be a disgrace. In fact, the standard 
test does nothing more or less than give an average of 
the achievements of a large number of children, and de- 
fines the spelling efficiency of one group in terms of the 
achievement of another. To expect more than this is 
to mistake the meaning and use of standard tests. 

Misunderstanding and misuse of statistical results. 
A second source of confusion in the use of these tests 
arises from a misunderstanding and misuse of statistical 
results. People tend to take figures at their face value, 
with little effort at interpreting them according to their 
derivation. But, if this is a matter of common knowl- 
edge, are not the leaders of the movement for the de- 
velopment of instruments for statistical investigations 
to blame for not safeguarding the use of these instru- 
ments against common misconceptions and misinterpre- 
tations ? As a matter of fact, investigators and school 

[ 124 ] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

men continue to give out statistical facts with little or 
no effort at describing or explaining their derivation or 
meaning. An explanation of the conditions under 
which facts are obtained is just as essential to the true 
interpretation of results as a knowledge of the results 
themselves. 

USE OF STANDARD TESTS 

Problems for investigation. The first step in the 
use of standard tests and scores is the selection of a 
problem for investigation. Probably the most import- 
ant and interesting problem which will be suggested to 
the teacher is the comparison of the standing of her 
class with the average or standard score. Another 
matter of immediate interest is the determination of the 
growth in class efficiency and the comparison of this 
growth with that of other classes. Other problems 
more or less vitally connected with the work of the 
teacher are the classification and promotion of pupils, 
the comparison of methods and devices of teaching, the 
frequency of reviews, the amount and apportionment 
of time devoted to spelling, individual differences in 
spelling efficiency, the condition of chronic bad spelling, 
and the evaluation of the factors affecting spelling effi- 
ciency, such as nationality. 

Problem must be practical and definite. Care must 
be taken in selecting a problem that is practical, — that 
is, adaptable to experimental investigation, — and ex- 
actly defined. Investigations of " a drill method," for 
example, are useless unless we know what the specific 
form of drill is. Again, such terms as " the personal- 
ity of the teacher " and " environment " are entirely 
too vague to yield significant results. 

Study of other investigations of the same problem. 

[125] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Much light will be thrown upon the problem under study 
by a knowledge of the investigations along similar lines. 
It will help define the problem, suggest methods of 
procedure, and give significance to the results. The 
teacher will find it extremely worth while to refer to 
other investigations of the same problem before pro- 
ceeding with her work. 

Selection of material. The next step is the selection 
of the material for the test. The material will depend 
in large part upon the nature of the problem under 
investigation. If the problem has to do with the meas- 
uring of pupils, as for purposes of classification, then a 
large number of words should be selected, say 100 to 
200 words. On the other hand, the comparison of 
whole classes may be made with fewer words, 50 to 100. 
In addition to the sufficiency as to quantity the words 
should be uniform in difficulty or have a known degree 
of difficulty and, in so far as practicable, should be 
equally familiar to all children or groups of children of 
the test. For fine investigations of methods of teaching 
it will be well also to secure homogeneous material, such 
as phonetic words. 

Avoiding constant errors. Where group tests are 
made, care should be taken to avoid constant errors,' 
such as selecting the brighter members of the class in 
getting general class averages, or choosing words re- 
cently reviewed by certain groups for general compara- 
tive purposes. Also, the number of children chosen 
should be large enough to balance chance variations. 
It is claimed that twenty-eight cases is sufficient to give 
typical results. The children should represent a typ- 
ical selection from the age, grade, sex, nationality, race, 
school, and region under investigation. 

Methods of investigation: statistical and experi- 
[126] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

mental-pedagogical. Classroom studies may follow 
either of two general methods of investigation. The 
first, the statistical method, is especially fitted to the 
determination of general group tendencies, in which 
large numbers must be measured in order to get signifi- 
cant results. Comparisons are made upon statistical 
results of group tests. The other method of investiga- 
tion involves the direct comparison of two pedagogical 
processes, such as methods of presentation, by means 
of comparing the growth in efficiency of two groups of 
children in which the processes under study are the only 
variable factors. It is called the experimental-peda- 
gogical method. The method chosen must fit the prob- 
lem under investigation. 

General plan of procedure the same in either method. 
The general plan of procedure is largely the same in 
using either method. The plan of the investigation 
should provide for several repetitions of the same test 
under different conditions. In the more formal inves- 
tigations these include a preliminary test, which is used 
to locate difficulties and to familiarize the experimenter 
with the giving of the test; the main test, which gives 
the chief results of the investigation; and the control 
test, which is used to verify the results of the main test. 

The control of variable factors. In order to get 
comparable results it is necessary that all conditions 
and variable factors except the one under investigation 
be kept the same. These include, first, the manner of 
presentation. In the giving of standard tests it is quite 
necessary that the facts of presentation be known and 
followed. The manner of presentation can play a con- 
siderable part in determining the results. Where 
teachers give tests, they should follow uniform instruc- 
tions. 

[127] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

It is important also to give tests at the same period 
in the school term. It makes considerable difference, 
for example, whether a standard of efficiency is taken 
for the grade at the beginning, middle, or end of the 
term. Other external factors which should be con- 
trolled in finer experiments are the time of day, humid- 
ity, temperature, writing material, seating as affecting 
the opportunity for copying, time for correcting work, 
and the child's speed of writing. 

Other factors, which may be designated as those in- 
ternal to the pupil, should be controlled. The most 
important of these is motive. A special appeal to the 
child's interests or ambitions will have a powerful influ- 
ence upon the energy and care which he puts into the 
work, and so will vitally affect the result. The appeal 
to the children should be kept the same. Other impor- 
tant factors are the preparation for the test and the 
mental condition of the pupils, especially fatigue. 

Checking results. In all testing the checking of re- 
sults is an important matter. The need for the saving 
of time in school testing demands that the teacher get 
as much assistance as possible from the children. Any 
plan for doing this which gives accurate results may be 
used. As a rule the marks should be verified by the 
teacher. In ordinary school testing it is impracticable 
to give weight to errors according to their difficulty. 
Therefore it is best to use words of approximately equal 
difficulty so that this is rendered unnecessary. In more 
formal testing, specific rules for checking results, defin- 
ing clearly the status of doubtful errors, are necessary. 
Also, care should be taken to verify all marking and 
to weigh errors according to the difficulty of the word. 

Recording results. The recording of results is a 
matter that should receive more attention. To be com- 
[128] 



THE MEASUREMENT OF SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

plete the statement of results should show the number 
of pupils participating in the test, the number of words, 
the total number of spellings, the total number of words 
correctly spelled, or of errors, and the appropriate per- 
centages. Tables should show also the distribution of 
facts, with an average or median as a measure of cen- 
tral tendency and a figure showing the variability. 
Tabular presentations should bring out the relations be- 
tween the important factors compared. Groupings 
also make the analysis of results more complete, such 
as the averages of the one-fourth best and of the one- 
fourth poorest spellers. These relationships can be 
presented very clearly and vividly by the use of graphs. 
It is well also to accompany the tables and graphs with 
a brief descriptive statement. Finally, the results of 
the investigation should be given in general and detailed 
verbal statements. 

Drawing conclusions. The drawing of conclusions is 
the final step of the investigation. Conclusions should 
be distinguished from inferences and pedagogical sug- 
gestions. The first is a simple statement of facts based 
upon the results of the experiment. Inferences and 
suggestions are implications of the real facts based in 
part upon the results of the experiments and in part 
upon the investigator's general knowledge and experi- 
ence. As a rule only limited conclusions can be drawn 
from any one experiment. They should be specific and 
definite. 

SUMMARY 

1. Problems involved in the measurement and com- 
parison of the achievements of large groups of children 
have occasioned the development of standard tests and 
scales. 

[129] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

£. Two conspicuous and widely used instruments are 
the Buckingham scale of 50 words and the Ayres scale 
of 1000 words. 

3. The practical values of these scales are: (a) 
They provide common test words of known degrees of 
difficulty ; (b) they make possible a more accurate com- 
parison of different groups of children; (c) they pro- 
vide " standard " scores. 

4. From the point of view of the classroom teacher 
the limitation of the scales is that («) the measurements 
lack precision, because they do not measure the specific 
results of spelling instruction; (5) they do not measure 
growth in spelling efficiency; (c) they are expressed in 
terms of static efficiency rather than of growth in effi- 
ciency. 

5. Confusion and actual misuse of " standard " tests 
arise from a misunderstanding of terms and of statisti- 
cal results. 

6. In the use of scales the following points should re- 
ceive the special attention of the teacher: the selection 
of a practical problem for investigation; the selection 
of pupils and material ; the choice of a method of inves- 
tigation ; the development of a plan of procedure; the 
control of variable factors ; checking and recording re- 
sults; and drawing conclusions. 



[130] 



CHAPTER NINE 
Factors Affecting Spelling Efficiency 

OF equal importance to the problems involved in the 
teaching of spelling are the problems which con- 
cern primarily the organization and administration of 
the spelling work. One of these has been discussed in 
the preceding chapter, the measurement of spelling effi- 
ciency. Other problems have to do with the determina- 
tion of the general policies of the school in regard to the 
organization of classes, the preparation of the course 
of study, the selection of a general method of teaching, 
the determination of the amount of time that should be 
given to spelling, and the apportionment of this time 
among the grades. The success of this work will de- 
pend in part upon the accurate evaluation of the fac- 
tors affecting spelling efficiency. These factors include 
spelling material, methods, amount of time, grade, age, 
sex, nationality, and general efficiency. 

spelling material 

The importance of spelling material as a factor in 
determining spelling efficiency was treated at length in 
the first chapter of this book. Suffice it to repeat here 
our general proposition that practical efficiency in 
spelling rests primarily upon the ability to spell the 
words that are being used at the time and the words 
that will be added to the writing vocabulary in the near 
future. 

Spelling reform. In a previous connection, also, it 
was brought out that three fourths of the difficulties 
that we meet in spelling are due to the peculiar char- 

[131] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

acteristic of the English language, the unphonetic spell- 
ing of words. This fact has suggested to some students 
of the problem the need for a radical spelling reform. 
But this is the hope of the dreamer rather than the ex- 
pectation of the practical educator. English spelling 
reform has been going on for hundreds of years, and at 
several periods in the near past it has been somewhat 
accelerated by organized efforts in this direction; but 
the changes that have been effected have failed to free 
the English language from its traditional shackles. 
The chances are that this will not be accomplished for 
many years to come, and too much should not be ex- 
pected from the movement in the way of immediate 
relief. Yet spelling reform is gradually coming about, 
and the teacher, as one of the largest beneficiaries, 
should do all in her power to further the movement. 

Teaching properly sanctioned simplifications. The 
schools cannot go in advance of public opinion in the 
matter, but where general sanction is given to new forms 
of spelling there is no reason why these should not be 
accepted and taught. At least twelve such simplifica- 
tions out of a total of 300 recommended by the Simpli- 
fied Spelling Board in 1906 have been generally advo- 
cated and adopted by leading American scholars, higher 
educational institutions, and newspapers. These are: 
program, catalog, decalog, prolog, pedagog, tho, altho, 
thoro, thoroly, thorofare, thru, and thruout. These 
forms are recognized by Webster's New International 
Dictionary, and they have been adopted by the National 
Education Association. At the July, 1916, meeting of 
the National Education Association, it was voted to 
adopt another simplification recommended by the Board 
— the use of the t in the place of ed when ed is sounded 
like t, and where the change does not affect the pronun- 

[ 132 ] 



FACTORS AFFECTING SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

Siciation ; i. e., flxt for -fixed, blest for blessed, hist for 
^kissed. 

SPELLING METHODS 

It has been assumed in the preceding pages that 
method is an important factor in producing efficiency in 
spelling — that spelling is a subject that can be taught, 
and that there are right and wrong methods of teach- 
ing it. 

Contrary conclusions of Rice and Cornman. This 
view, which is generally accepted by teachers, has not 
been allowed to pass unchallenged by experimenters. 
The first important American investigator reached the 
sweeping conclusion that there is no direct relation be- 
tween methods and results. Following Dr. Rice *' 2 
Cornman 3 claimed that the time devoted to the specific 
spelling drill bears no discoverable relation to the re- 
sult. These two conclusions are not borne out by suc- 
ceeding investigations, in which the problem was ap- 
proached by a more direct method and conditions were 
more carefully controlled. Practically every investiga- 
tion, in which specific methods of teaching have been 
compared under exactly defined and controlled condi- 
tions, has given evidence of the superiority of certain 
methods. 

Drill vs. incidental methods. The particular contro- 
versy in the field of general methods is about the rela- 
tive value of drill and incidental methods of teaching. 
Cornman's investigation led him to favor the incidental 

i Rice, J. M., " The Futility of the Spelling Grind." Scientific 
Management and Education, pages 65-99. 

2 Tidyman, W. F., " A Critical Study of Rice's Investigation of 
Spelling Efficiency." Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. II, 1915, pages 
391-400. 

3 Cornman, O. P., Spelling in the Elementary School, 1902. 

[133] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

method. Wallin 4 completely disapproved this, saying, 
" Teaching spelling exclusively by a well-organized drill 
gives more satisfactory results than teaching it ex- 
clusively by the incidental method." The confusion 
concerning the relative value of the drill and incidental 
methods was caused in part by the failure to timit the 
investigation to a specific drill method and to a specific 
incidental method, and in part by the failure to secure 
adequate control over the other varying factors. The 
investigators show that satisfactory results can be ob- 
tained by either method under certain conditions. 
Neither has shown the superior value of the drill or the 
incidental method under precisely the same conditions. 
In short, the investigations leave us about where we 
started as far as a knowledge of the relative value of 
the two methods is concerned. 

This confusion is not so apparent in general theory 
and practice. Few advocate or attempt the teaching of 
spelling apart from formal drill upon isolated words. 
This practice is supported in part by the indirect evi- 
dence of Winch, 5 Turner, 6 and others, where some form 
of drill work demonstrated its superiority to a less di- 
rect method. 

AMOUNT OF TIME DEVOTED TO SPELLING 

Negative value of time. The time element is an- 
other one of those factors about which Rice 7 and Corn- 
man 8 made striking statements. As a result of their 
investigations it is claimed that there is no relation be- 

* Wallin, J. E. W., Spelling Efficiency in Relation to Age, 
Grade, and Sex, and the Question of Transfer, 1911. 
s Winch, W. H., op. cit. 
e Turner, E. A., op. cit. 

7 Rice, J. M., op. cit. 

8 Cornman, O. P., op. cit. 

[134] 



FACTORS AFFECTING SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

tween spelling efficiency and the amount of time de- 
voted to spelling. A similar conclusion was reached in 
a recent survey of the Oakland, California, schools. 9 
It shows that for entire grades and for separate classes 
there was no definite relation between minutes per week 
and the class or grade standing. 

Time not the most important factor. Just what 
meaning is to be inferred from these facts is a ques- 
tion. It seems to me that the least likely explanation 
is that spelling is a subject not susceptible to methods 
of teaching. This is clearly disproved by repeated 
comparative studies of methods. Rather, these results 
show that the amount of time spent is not the most im- 
portant factor in the situation. Of far greater impor- 
tance is the way in which the time is spent. 

Whatever the meaning of these facts, the practical 
consequences are important. They stimulate a crit- 
ical examination of time allotments and methods of 
teaching. 

Need for economy. The results of the Oakland sur- 
vey suggest that there is still room for improvement in 
these particulars. With the ever increasing demands 
for more emphasis upon the social or content subjects, 
it should be a constant consideration on the part of 
school officials to reduce the time necessarily devoted 
to spelling to a minimum. This is possible only by 
increasing the effectiveness of our work in other partic- 
ulars, principally in the selection of words and methods 
of teaching. Our aim should be not to get the best 
possible results in spelling, but to get the best possible 
results with the least expenditure of time and effort. 

Measures of economy. No doubt much time is still 

s Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, California, Spell- 
ing Efficiency in the Oakland Schools, 1915. 

[ 135 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

wasted through the use of poorly chosen word lists and 
inferior methods of teaching. Fifteen to twenty min- 
utes per day should be the maximum amount of time 
allotted to spelling. It is possible to get satisfactory 
results on even less time. It is a disputed question 
whether the formal study of spelling may not be omitted 
from the two lower grades. And, when the work in the 
preceding grades is well organized and effectively 
taught, the time necessarily devoted to spelling in the 
two upper grades may be considerably reduced. Ex- 
perience seems to indicate that it should not be elimi- 
nated entirely. One of the few conclusions of the re- 
cent Cleveland investigation was : " The incidental 
teaching of spelling in junior high schools seems not to 
function as well as the definite assignment in the reg- 
ular elementary schools." Further, it is possible that 
we may find upon more extended investigation that more 
time and effort should be concentrated in the lower in- 
termediate grades, where the growth in spelling efficiency 
is most rapid. 

GRADE AND SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

Wide distribution and overlapping of children 9 s abil- 
ities. It would seem that the purpose of grading is to 
get children of approximately equal spelling ability to- 
gether. Repeated investigation shows that, whatever 
the intent and purposes, this is far from realized in ac- 
tual school administration. We find children in the 
third grade spelling as well as children in the eighth, 
and children of the fifth grade matching the spelling 
efficiency of children in every other grade in school. 
This wide distribution and overlapping of children's 
abilities shows the marked limitations of our present 
system of grading. In general, children of the lower 

[136] 



FACTORS AFFECTING SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

grades show greater variability than those of the upper, 
due partly to the large loss through elimination in the 
upper grades. 

Progression from grade to grade. Grading has 
more significance when whole grades are compared. 
Then it becomes clear that there is a progression in abil- 
ity from grade to grade. The early investigations, in 
which separate tests of miscellaneous words were used, 
did not bring out this fact. When uniform or stand- 
ard tests were used, as in the studies of Kratz, 10 Buck- 
ingham, 11 Hornbaker, 12 and myself, 13 the fact becomes 
clear. 

Greatest improvement in the lower grades. Now the 
more debatable and important question is how this im- 
provement is distributed through the course. Definite 
knowledge of this fact would throw some light upon the 
variation in emphasis which should be given to spelling 
in the various grades. The results that are available 
show that the improvement is considerably greater in 
the lower grades. The improvement in the third and 
fourth grades is over twice as great as that in the fifth, 
sixth, and seventh. To get a more definite notion of 
this fact it would be necessary to devise tests better 
fitted to the work than the uniform test. The present 
conclusions seem to favor stressing spelling in the lower 
intermediate grades. 

10 Kratz, H. E., ** A Study in Spelling." Studies and Observa- 
tions in the Schoolroom, pages 127-140. 

n Buckingham, B. R., op. cit. 

12 Hornbaker, W. R., " A Spelling Test for the Whole School." 
Educational Bi-monthly, Vol. VIII, 1914, pages 351-353. 

isTidyman, W. F., "The Relation of Age, Grade, Sex, and 
General Efficiency to Spelling Efficiency." Experimental Studies 
of Spelling, Thesis, New York University, 1915. Unpublished. 

[137] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



AGE, SEX, AND SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

Age. Age in relation to spelling efficiency presents 
about the same facts and problems as grade. That is, 
there is wide variability in individual achievements and 
large overlapping in the several age groups. Thus the 
Oakland survey shows the distribution of 13-year-old 
children through all the grades, and this is taken as 
" striking evidence that chronological age means almost 
nothing in school organization." 

It is true of age, also, that each age group when 
taken as a whole shows an increase in efficiency over the 
preceding group. The increase from 9 to 12 is about 
twice that from IS to 15. 

Girls better spellers than boys, A comparison of the 
sexes gives conclusive evidence that girls are more effi- 
cient spellers than boys. This appears in every grade 
and increases gradually with age. Only about one 
third of the boys do as well as one half of the girls. It 
appears that boys' ability spreads over a wider range 
than girls', but the evidence is not conclusive in this 
matter. The differences in sex will throw some light 
upon the general problem of individual differences. 
Girls can do more work than boys, and this should be 
demanded of them. Girls could complete the course in 
spelling in from one sixth to one eighth less time than 
the boys. 

Significance of individual and group differences. 
The wide range of ability in the same grade presents 
peculiar problems for the teacher in dealing with indi- 
vidual and group differences. It will mean that a given 
lesson has practically no difficulty for some pupils, 
moderate difficulty for others, and extreme difficulty for 
still others. The solution of this problem will be fur- 
[138] 



FACTORS AFFECTING SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

thered by adequate administrative provisions, such as 
special classes for bright and for backward children, 
irregular promotions, and the use of assistant teachers. 
In doing her part, the teacher should first become aware 
of the extent of individual differences and locate the in- 
dividuals at the extremes. Then, by varying the as- 
signments and keeping individual review lists she 
should try to fit the tasks to the abilities of the chil- 
dren. 

NATIONALITY AND SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

Nationality an important factor. The presence in 
many of our schools of a large foreign element has in- 
creased the complexities of teaching and raised new 
problems. One problem is the effect of nationality 
upon individual differences in achievement. The nega- 
tive statement of the earlier investigators is untenable. 
In a preliminary comparison of foreign children, chiefly 
Italians, and American children, not including negroes, 
in one school, the author found marked differences. 
The Italians averaged 15 per cent below the Americans 
in the third and fourth grades, 5 per cent below in the 
fifth and sixth, and 6 per cent above in the grammar 
grades. The higher percentage in the grammar grades 
was due in a measure at least to the dropping out of a 
large number of the poorer Italian pupils. However, 
this does not explain the change in the intermediate 
grades. It seems probable that by the time the inter- 
mediate grades are reached the handicap due to igno- 
rance of the English language is largely overcome and 
that the native ability of the children is allowed to assert 
itself. 

Facts from the Oakland survey. Further evidence of 
the effect of nationality upon the standing of pupils in 

[ 139 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

school is given in the Oakland survey. 14 It appears 
there that in every grade the foreigners fall below the 
average for the grade. The amounts of these devia- 
tions are: Grade III, 3.1 per cent; V, 2.3 per cent; 
VIII, 2 per cent. This does not represent the actual 
difference between Americans and foreigners, since both 
are included in the general averages. On the average 
the foreigners fell about 5 per cent below the Americans. 
This would mean about 6 per cent in the third grade 
and 4 per cent in the eighth. The foreign children 
there represent selections from every part of Europe, 
in about the same numbers. The effect of any one na- 
tionality is not so clear and in many cases the lan- 
guage is not a handicap. Yet the differences are large 
enough to be conspicuous and to demand considera- 
tion. 

Not so much should be expected of foreign children 
as of Americans. This is important in making out the 
course of study as well as in teaching. In using stand- 
ard scores, also, it will be necessary to take the matter 
of nationality into consideration. For these purposes 
it is important to obtain more accurate statements of 
the differences caused by nationality. 

Other social factors. Other social factors creating 
individual differences are environment, the personality 
of the teacher, the father's occupation, children's occu- 
pational ambitions, and home language. The last three 
were treated rather fully in the Oakland survey. Some 
interesting facts were brought out, which, however, ad- 
mit of different interpretations. Thus it was found 
that children of professional men rank considerably 
higher than children of laborers, and that in between 

14 Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, California, op. 
cit., pages 49-54. 

[140] 



FACTORS AFFECTING SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

these lie children of clerks, officials, business men, agri- 
culturists, and artisans. 

Children ambitious to be teachers, writers, and mu- 
sicians seem to show a relatively high grade of spelling 
efficiency. On the other hand, if the ambitions look 
toward baseball, labor, or nursing, the chances are that 
the spelling efficiency of the child will be low. However, 
the differences are not so large as to be striking. 

" The influence of the home language seems not to be 
very evident, since the errors made by children of for- 
eign homes are in the main identical with those made 
by children whose home language is English, and are 
made in approximately similar proportions." 

GENERAL EFFICIENCY AND SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

Spelling efficiency has been regarded generally as a 
highly specialized mental trait bearing little or no rela- 
tion to general mental ability. Recent investigations 
of the question show that this extreme view is untenable. 
In 1915 the author 15 compared the standings of about 
500 pupils in two schools, Grades III to VIII, in respect 
to spelling efficiency and general efficiency based upon 
an average of the marks received in all the school sub- 
jects. The relationship was very close, as indicated by 
a coefficient of correlation of .5. In the same year 
Houser 16 reported a similar study and reached the 
same conclusion. The coefficient was practically the 
same, .5. Hollingworth 17 found a coefficient of .419 
when the spelling abilities of nine normal pupils, the 

is Tidyman, W. F., op. cit. 

is Houser, J. D., " Relation of Spelling Ability to General In- 
telligence and to Meaning Vocabulary." Elementary School 
Journal, Vol. XVI, 1915, pages 190-199. 

17 Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology of Special Disability 
in Spelling, 1918, page 14. 

[141] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Control Group, were related to " mental age." Bran- 
denburg 18 found that the pupils ranking highest in gen- 
eral scholarship make the fewest errors in spelling. He 
says, " It is clear that we have a very substantial corre- 
lator ." 

SUMMARY 

1. Problems of organization and administration de- 
pend for their solution, in part, upon the accurate eval- 
uation and balancing of the factors affecting spelling 
efficiency. 

&. Efficiency in spelling depends primarily upon the 
right choice of words. 

3. The reform of English spelling is too slow to give 
much hope for immediate relief in that direction. 

4. Method is an important factor in determining 
spelling efficiency. 

5. The apparently negative value of the time ele- 
ment suggests the need for economies, foremost among 
which is the careful selection of words and methods of 
teaching. 

6. Grading is chiefly conspicuous for the wide dis- 
tribution of ability within the grade, and the large 
amount of overlapping among the grades. 

7. The greatest improvement is made in the lower 
grades. 

8. Age presents facts similar to those of grade. 

9. Girls are better spellers than boys. Only about 
one third of the boys do as well as one half of the girls. 

10. Nationality is an important determinant of 
spelling efficiency. The specific cause of the inferi- 
ority of certain classes of foreigners is not apparent, 

is Brandenburg, G. C, "The Spelling Ability of University 
Students." School and Society, Vol. VII, 1917, pages 26-29. 

[ 142 ] 



FACTORS AFFECTING SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

but the handicap of the lower grades seems to disap- 
pear as the child advances. 

II. The positive relation of spelling efficiency to 
general efficiency is shown in the coefficient of .5. 



[143] 



APPENDIX A 

SPELLING PLANS 

SPELLING PLAN AND RECORD SHEET. GRADE VI, HART 

school, helen a. brown, teacher. (For descrip- 
tion see page 26.) 



Week of 
Feb. 14 


Pre- 
limin- 
ary 
test 
Fri- 
day 


Mon- 
day, 
Feb. 
14 


Tues- 
day 


Wed- 
nes- 
day 


Thurs- 
day 


Fri- 
day 


Review 

test 

March. 

3 


No. present 


44 


40 


40 


40 


40 


40 


43 


courage 
careful 


12 
3 


1 














1 

2 


which 


1 

















their 


3 


1 











3 


there 


2 


1 








1 


2 


business 


10 


2 








2 


1 


service 


18 




1 






1 


3 


servant 


16 











1 


1 


faithful 


19 











1 


1 


many 
friend 


2 
7 












1 
2 






since 


6 














2 


explanation 


21 






4 




2 


4 


attention 


16 






3 




2 


2 


always 
write 


3 

4 







1 




3 



2 



writing 
once 


8 
1 






2 













declaration 


36 








3 


1 


4 


description 


20 








2 


2 


10 


vacation 


20 








1 





3 


doctor 


7 














2 


often 


14 














3 


automobile 


22 








5 





2 



[145] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

II. STEPS IN TEACHING SPELLING. HORACE MANN SCHOOL X 

Write one of the new words on the blackboard and teach 
it in accordance with the following plan. Then erase it and 
write the next word, teaching it in the same way. Con- 
tinue in this way throughout the list. 

(a) While writing the word, pronounce it distinctly. 

(o) Develop the meaning orally either by calling for a 
sentence using the word or by giving its definition. 

(c) Divide the word into syllables. Call on pupils to 
spell orally by syllables. Have them indicate what part of 
the word presents difficulties, or whether the word contains 
parts they already know. 

(d) Have pupils write the word on practice paper sev- 
eral times, spelling it softly as they write. 

(e) Allow the class a moment in which to look at the word 
again, and then have them close their eyes and try to visual- 
ize it, or use any other device of a similar nature. Have 
considerable repetition, both oral and written. 

III. PLAN OP PRESENTING WORDS. GRADE III A, HART 

SCHOOL. NELLIE V. WEDDERSPOON, TEACHER. 

time: 15 MINUTES 

Words and spelling difficulty: steam 19/32; please 17/32; 
race 17/32. 

Commonest errors: stem; pleas, pies, piece; rase, rac, 
rass. 

Words are on the blackboard at the opening of school. 

Erase at the beginning of the spelling lesson. 

I. Taking up words one at a time, the teacher writes the 
word on the board and pronounces it. Children pronounce 
after her. 

II. Several children use word in a sentence until it is 
clear that they know the meaning. 

III. Visualization. In what way are steam and please 
alike? Underline similarities. Pick out familiar parts. 

iThis plan is presented through the courtesy of Mr. H. C. 
Pearson. 

[146] 



SPELLING PLANS 

Associate with ease, team, tea. Sound steam. How many 
sounds? How many letters? Why are there five letters 
and but four sounds? Sound please. How many sounds? 
Letters? Why six letters and but four sounds? Sound 
race. How many sounds? Letters? What difficulties 
in this word? What words have the same ace ending? 
Erase words. 

IV. Rewrite word. Children look at it. Spell it look- 
ing at it ; without looking at it. Call on individuals. Write 
it on paper. Look to see if it is correct. 

V. Write words in lesson from memory. 

In the final test mistakes were made as follows: steam, 
3; please, 2; race, 0. 

IV. PLAN OF PRESENTING WORDS. GRADE IV B, HART SCHOOL. 
SARA A. WARD, TEACHER. TIME: 15 MINUTES 

Words Degree of difficulty Chief difficulties 

1. acorn 11/35 acron, acoum 

2. bled 21/35 bkd, blood 

3. heap 29/35 heep 

4. leap 25/35 leep 

1. Acorn. 

I. Write word on the board and pronounce it. Chil- 
dren pronounce. 
II. Children give sentences. 

III. Divide into syllables. 

IV. Children pick out known words, as or and corn. 

Underline. Emphasize hard parts. Associate 
with or and corn. 
V. Children spell word orally with eyes closed. 
VI. Children write word two or three times. 

2. Bled. 

I and II as above. 

III. Omit. 

IV. Find a word we have had (led). Give words of 

same family, such as, fled, bed, red. 
V and VI as above. 

[147] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

3. Heap. 

I and II as above. 

III. Omit. 

IV. Find hard part (silent a). Think of words we 

have had with ea, sounded as e 9 in them, such as 
cream, seat, meal. 

V and VI as above. 

4. Leap. 

I and II as above. 

III. Omit. 

IV. Compare with heap. 

V and VI as above. 

If time remains, play guessing game with the words of 
the lesson; or play " Hangman " with review words. 
Assignment of seat work: 

Write Use in sentences 
acorn 2 1 

bled 2 2 

heap 4 2 

leap 4 2 

V. PLAN OF PRESENTING WORDS. GRADE V A, HART SCHOOL. 

ELIZABETH M. DRUMM, TEACHER. TIME 20 MINUTES 

CLASS WORK 15 M.; SEAT WORK 5 M. 

Word and difficulty: druggist, 29/38; digging, 18/38; dumb, 

34/38; deny, 34/38. 
Particular difficulty: In druggist and digging, the two g's; 
in each case but one g was used. Dumb has a silent b. 
In deny the y has the sound of long i and is spelled with 
an i or an ie. 
Preliminary: Have words on the board during the entire 

day. 
First word: druggist. 

I. Pronounce and have children pronounce. (In both 
cases be sure that the ist is not sounded as est.) 
II. Several pupils use in a sentence. 
[148] 



SPELLING PLANS 

III. Rewrite in syllables: druggist. Pronounce by syl- 

lables and have children pronounce after you, look- 
ing carefully at the letters of each syllable. What 
is the particular difficulty in this word ? Under- 
line it. What is the last letter of the first syllable ? 
The first letter of the last syllable? Look at the 
word again. Spell it aloud. What other word in 
the lesson has the same difficulty? 

IV. Close your eyes. Try to see the word. 

V. Spell orally together. Have those who spell poorly 
or carelessly spell individually. 
VI. Write word two or three times on paper. 

Second word: digging. 

I and II as above. Be sure that the ing is well 
sounded. 
Ill, IV, V and VI as above. 

Third word: dumb. 

I and II as above. 

III. What is particularly hard about this word? Un- 

derline the difficult part. Can you think of any 
other word that has silent b at the end ? Associate 
with lamb and comb. 

IV, V, and VI as above. 

Fourth word: deny. 

I and II as above. 

III. What is the particular spelling difficulty? Under- 

line it. Place try, cry, and reply on the board, 
and notice similarities. 

IV. Close eyes and try to spell word as you see it. What 

is the last letter? 
V and VI as above. 

Seat work : Write words in sentences as follows : dumb and 

deny three times, druggist and digging two times. 
Results of test: druggist, 0; digging, 0; dumb, 1; deny, 0. 

[ 149 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

VI. PLAN OF PRESENTING WORDS. GRADE VI, HART SCHOOL. 
HELEN A. BROWN, TEACHER. TIME: 18 MINUTES 

Aim. To teach the pronunciation, spelling, and use of 
the following words: generally, especially, respectfully, 
fully. 

Preliminary. The group of words was given to the class 
as a column exercise before the words had been studied, and 
the degree of difficulty of each word was found as indicated 
below: generally, 9/27; especially, 20/27; respectfully, 
11/27; fully, 4/27. 

The II (I) was a common error in all words except fully. 
The first syllable of especially was also frequently mis- 
spelled, ex. 

The words remained upon the board for some time before 
presentation. 

Presentation. 



fully 



ful ly 
fully 



generally 



gen er al ly 

general ly 
11 



Teacher pronounces word. 

Class. 

Use fully in sentences. 

Write word on board in syllables. 

Point out a common word. 

Underline full. 

Spell full. Then fully. 

Close eyes and spell fully. 

Write word on paper and spell to yourselves. 

Let us see how the other words of the lesson 

are like fully. 
Pronounce for class. Class pronounce. 
Use in sentences. 
Look closely at word and pronounce slowly 

and distinctly by syllables. 
What word do you see in generally? 
How has it been changed to make generally? 
How is the word like fully? 
Underline 11. 



[150] 



SPELLING PLANS 

Spell the word slowly, by syllables, keeping 

eyes on the word. Repeat two or three 

times. 
Class spell word with eyes closed. 
Call upon poor spellers to recite. 
Write word on paper several times spelling 

softly to yourselves. 
Proceed in a similar manner with especially 

and respectfully, referring each time to 11. 

Also note the following: 
especially In especially pick out the word special and 

underline it. 
special Write special on the board. 

How has it been changed? What is the first 

syllable ? Last ? 
Spell orally, emphasizing first and last syl- 
lables. 
respectfully Underline sped and fully. 
W T hy is sped difficult? 
Have several of the slower pupils spell the 

words of the lesson orally. 
What are we going to remember about the 

words in today's lesson? 

Seat work. Copy each word the number of times indi- 
cated on the board: fully, 2; generally, 3; respectfully, 3; 
especially, 5. Use each word in a sentence. 

Results of test. Fully, 0/25; especially, 1/25; generally, 
0/25; respectfully, 0/25. 



I 151 ] 



APPENDIX B 
A MINIMUM WORD LIST 

1254 WORDS COMMON TO FOUR OR MORE OF THE SIX MOST RE- 
LIABLE AND EXTENSIVE CONCRETE INVESTIGATIONS OF THE 
WORDS FREQUENTLY USED BY CHILDREN AND ADULTS IN 
WRITING. 

The combined investigations comprise the Jones list 1 
of 4532 words, the Chancellor list 2 of 1000 words, the 
Smith 3 list of 1125 words, the Cook and O'Shea list 4 of 
3200 words, the Studley and Ware 5 list of 3470 words, and 
the Ayres ° list of 1000 words. 



able 


afraid 


almost 


answer 


about 


after 


alone 


any 


absence 


again 


along 


anything 


absent 


against 


already 


anyway 


accept 


age 


also 


appear 


accident 


ago 


always 


apple 


account 


agree 


among 


appoint 


across 


agreeable 


amount 


argument 


act 


ahead 


an 


arm 


add 


air 


and 


around 


addition 


alike 


angry 


arrange 


address 


all 


animal 


arrangement 


affair 


allow 


another 


arrest 



i Jones, W. F., Concrete Investigation of the Material of Eng~ 
lish Spelling, 1914. 

2 Chancellor, W. E., " Spelling." Journal of Education, Vol. 
LXXI, 1910, pages 488, 517, 545, 573, 607. 

3 Smith, H. J., "Words Used Spontaneously by Children." 
Cook and O'Shea, The Child and His Spelling, 1914, pages 257- 
264. 

* Cook and O'Shea, " The Spelling Vocabulary." The Child and 
His Spelling, 1914, pages 125-245. 

s Studley, C. K., and Ware, Allison, Common Essentials in 
Spelling, Bulletin No. 7, State Normal School, Chico, California. 

6 Ayres, L. P., A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling, 1915. 

[152] 









WORD LIST 


arrive 


before 


both 


can 


ask 


beg 


bother 


candy 


asleep 


begin 


bottom 


capital 


assist 


beginning 


bought 


car 


association 


behind 


box 


card 


assure 


believe 


boy 


care 


attack 


bell 


branch 


carpet 


attempt 


belong 


bread 


carry 


attend 


below 


break 


case 


attention 


berry 


breakfast 


cat 


aunt 


besides 


breast 


catch 


automobile 


best 


brick 


cattle 


avenue 


better 


bridge 


cause 


awake 


between 


bright 


cave 


away- 


bicycle 


bring 


ceiling 


awful 


big 


brother 


cellar 


awhile 


bill 


brown 


cent 


baby 


bird 


bruise 


center 


back 


birth 


bug 


certain 


bad 


bite 


buggy 


chain 


baggage 


black 


build 


chair 


ball 


blanket 


bump 


chance 


banana 


bleed 


bunch 


change 


band 


blind 


bundle 


character 


bank 


block 


burn 


charge 


barn 


bloom 


bury 


chase 


basket 


blossom 


business 


check 


bathe 


blot 


busy 


cheese 


be 


blow 


but 


chicken 


bean 


blue 


butter 


chief 


bear 


bluff- 


button 


child 


beat 


board 


buy 


children 


beautiful 


boat 


cabin 


chimney 


because 


body 


cake 


choose 


become 


boil 


call 


chop 


bed 


book 


came 


Christmas 


been 


born 


camp 


church 



[153] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



circle 
city 
class 
clean 
clear 
clerk 
climb 
close 
cloth 
cloudy 
club 
coal 
coast 
coat 
coffee 
cold 
collect 
color 
comb 
come 
comfort 
coming 
committee 
common 
company 
complete 
condition 
contain 
continue 
convenient 
cook 
copy 
corn 
corner 
cost 
cottage 
cotton 
[154] 



could 


deer 


during 


count 


defeat 


dust 


country 


delay 


duty 


couple 


dentist 


each 


courage 


depot 


ear 


course 


deserve 


early 


court 


desire 


earn 


cousin 


desk 


earth 


crack 


destroy 


east 


crawl 


diamond 


easy 


cross 


die 


eat 


crow 


difference 


edge 


crowd 


different 


education 


cruel 


dinner 


effect 


cry 


direct 


effort 


cup 


dirt 


egg 


cupboard 


disappear 


eight 


custom 


dish 


either 


cut 


distance 


election 


daily 


divide 


else 


damage 


do 


end 


damp 


doctor 


engine 


dance 


dog 


enjoy 


danger 


dollar 


enough 


dark 


done 


entertain 


date 


door 


escape 


daughter 


doubt 


especially 


day 


down 


even 


dead 


dozen 


evening 


deal 


draw 


ever 


dear 


dream 


every 


death 


dress 


everything 


debt 


drink 


examination 


decide 


drive 


examine 


decision 


drop 


except 


decorate 


drown 


expect 


deep 


due 


expense 









WORD LIST 


experience 


fill 


frighten 


green 


explain 


finally 


from 


grocery 


express 


find 


front 


ground 


eye 


fine 


fruit 


grow 


face 


finger 


full 


guard 


fact 


finish 


furnace 


guess 


factory- 


fire 


furniture 


guest 


fail 


first 


further 


guide 


failure 


fish 


future 


hair 


fair 


five 


game 


half 


fall 


fix 


garden 


hall 


familiar 


floor 


gas 


hammer 


family 


flour 


gather 


hand 


famous 


flower 


gave 


handkerchief 


far 


folks 


general 


handle 


farm 


follow 


get 


hang 


farther 


food 


girl 


happen 


fast 


foot 


give 


happy 


father 


football 


glad 


hard 


favor 


force 


glass 


harness 


fear 


forenoon 


go 


hat 


feather 


forest 


gold 


hate 


feed 


forget 


gone 


haul 


feel 


fork 


good 


have 


feet 


form 


good-by 


hay 


fell 


fort 


goose 


he 


fellow 


fortune 


government 


head 


felt 


forty 


grab 


healthy 


fence 


forward 


grade 


hear 


fever 


found 


grain 


heard 


few 


foundation 


grand 


heart 


field 


four 


grapes 


heat 


fierce 


free 


grass 


heaven 


fifth 


freeze 


grave 


heavy 


fifty 


freight 


gray 


heel 


fight 


fresh 


grease 


height 


figure 


friend 


great 


hello 



[155] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



help 


indeed 


laugh 


low 


her 


industry 


law 


lumber 


here 


information 


lawn 


lunch 


herself 


inside 


lawyer 


lungs 


hide 


intend 


lay 


machine 


high 


interest 


lazy 


madam 


hill 


into 


lead 


made 


him 


invitation 


leaf 


mail 


himself 


invite 


lean 


make 


history 


iron 


learn 


man 


hold 


jail 


least 


manage 


home 


jewel 


leave 


manners 


honest 


journey 


left 


many 


honor 


judge 


leg 


march 


hope 


judgment 


lemon 


mark 


horn 


juice 


length 


market 


horse 


just 


lesson 


marriage 


hospital 


keep 


let 


marry 


hour 


kill 


letter 


master 


house 


kind 


level 


match 


how 


kindness 


lie 


matter 


however 


king 


life 


maybe 


hundred 


kiss 


light 


me 


hungry 


kitchen 


like 


meal 


hunt 


kitten 


line 


mean 


hurry 


knee 


list 


measure 


hurt 


knew 


listen 


meat 


husband 


knife 


little 


medicine 


ice 


knock 


live 


member 


idle 


know 


lonesome 


men 


if 


knowledge 


long 


mend 


ill 


lady 


look 


mention 


imagine 


lake 


loose 


merry 


importance 


land 


lose 


middle 


impossible 


large 


lot 


might 


in 


last 


loud 


mile 


inch 


late 


love 


milk 



[156] 









WORD LIST 


mill 


newspaper 


one 


pencil 


mind 


next 


onion 


people 


mine 


nice 


only 


perfect 


minute 


nickel 


open 


perhaps 


miss 


night 


opinion 


period 


mistake 


nine 


opposite 


person 


mix 


ninety 


orange 


personal 


money- 


no 


orchard 


piano 


month 


noble 


order 


pick 


moon 


noise 


other 


picnic 


more 


none 


ought 


picture 


morning 


noon 


our 


pie 


most 


north 


ourselves 


piece 


mother 


nose 


out 


pin 


mountain 


not 


outside 


pink 


mouse 


note 


over 


pity 


mouth 


nothing 


own 


place 


move 


notice 


package 


plain 


much 


now 


page 


plan 


mud 


number 


paid 


plant 


must 


nurse 


pail 


play 


myself 


nut 


paint 


pleasant 


nail 


obj ect 


pair 


please 


name 


occasion 


paper 


pleasure 


narrow 


occupy 


parents 


plenty 


nature 


ocean 


park 


pocket 


naughty 


o'clock 


parlor 


point 


near 


of 


part 


poison 


nearly 


off 


particular 


police 


necessary 


offer 


party 


poor 


neck 


office 


pass 


popular 


need 


often 


past 


porch 


negro 


oil 


pay 


position 


neighbor 


old 


peanut 


possible 


neither 


omit 


pear 


possibly 


never 


on 


peculiar 


post 


new 


once 


pen 


potato 
[157] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



pound 


rain 


ring 


seed 


pour 


raise 


river 


seem 


power 


raisins 


road 


seen 


prefer 


rake 


roar 


select 


present 


ranch 


rock 


sell 


president 


rate 


roll 


send 


press 


rather 


roof 


sense 


pretty 


reach 


room 


sent 


price 


read 


rope 


separate 


principal 


ready 


rough 


serve 


print 


real 


round 


service 


prison 


really 


row 


set 


private 


reason 


rubber 


settle 


probably 


receipt 


rug 


seven 


proceed 


receive 


rule 


several 


promise 


recent 


run 


sew 


prompt 


recommend 


rush 


shade 


proper 


red 


sack 


shadow 


property 


refer 


sad 


shake 


pull 


relative 


safe 


shall 


pump 


relief 


said 


shape 


pumpkin 


remains 


sail 


sharp 


punish 


remark 


salary 


she 


pure 


remember 


same 


shed 


purpose 


rent 


satisfy 


sheep 


purse 


repair 


saw 


shell 


push 


repeat 


say 


shine 


put 


reply 


school 


ship 


quarrel 


report 


scratch 


shirt 


quarter 


request 


sea 


shock 


queer 


rest 


search 


shoe 


question 


result 


second 


shop 


quick 


return 


secret 


short 


quiet 


ribbon 


secretary 


should 


quite 


rich 


section 


shoulder 


race 


ride 


secure 


shout 


railroad 


right 


see 


shovel 



[158] 









WORD LIST 


show 


sold 


stay 


suppose 


shut 


sole 


steady 


sure 


sick 


solid 


steal 


surprise 


side 


some 


steel 


sweat 


sight 


somebody 


steep 


sweep 


sign 


something 


stick 


sweet 


silk 


sometime 


stiff 


swim 


silver 


son 


still 


swing 


simple 


song 


stockings 


system 


since 


soon 


stone 


table 


sing 


sorrow 


stood 


tablet 


sink 


sorry 


stop 


tack 


sir 


sound 


store 


tail 


sister 


soup 


storm 


take 


sit 


south 


story 


talk 


six 


sow 


stove 


taste 


sixty- 


speak 


straight 


tax 


size 


special 


strange 


teach 


skate 


spell 


straw 


teacher 


skin 


spend 


street 


team 


sky 


spirit 


strike 


tear 


sleep 


splendid 


string 


tease 


sleeve 


spoil 


struck 


telephone 


slide 


spoon 


study 


tell 


slip 


sport 


stuff 


ten 


small 


spot 


sub j ect 


term 


smell 


spread 


succeed 


terrible 


smile 


spring 


success 


than 


smoke 


square 


such 


thank 


smooth 


stack 


sudden 


that 


snake 


stairs 


suggest 


the 


snow 


stamp 


suit 


theater 


so 


stand 


summer 


their 


soap 


star 


sun 


them 


society 


start 


supper 


themselves 


soft 


state 


supply 


then 


soil 


station 


support 


there 



[159] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 



therefore 


total 


usual 


west 


these 


touch 


vacation 


wet 


they 


toward 


vegetables 


what 


thick 


town 


very 


wheat 


thin 


toy 


vessel 


wheel 


thing 


track 


view 


when 


think 


train 


village 


where 


third 


tramp 


visit 


whether 


thirty 


travel 


visitor 


which 


this 


traveler 


voice 


while 


those 


treasure 


volume 


whip 


though 


tree 


vote 


whistle 


thought 


trip 


wagon 


white 


thousand 


trouble 


wait 


who 


thread 


true 


wake 


whole 


three 


truly 


walk 


whom 


throat 


trunk 


wall 


why 


through 


trust 


want 


wide 


\;hrow 


truth 


war 


wife 


thunder 


try 


warm 


will 


ticket 


turkey 


wash 


win 


tie 


turn 


waste 


wind 


tight 


twelve 


watch 


window 


time 


twenty 


water 


winter 


tip 


twice 


wave 


wire 


tire 


two 


way 


wish 


to 


ugly 


we 


with 


today 


unable 


weak 


within 


together 


uncle 


wear 


without 


told 


under 


weather 


woman 


tomorrow 


understand 


weed 


women 


tongue 


unless 


week 


wonder 


tonight 


until 


weigh 


wonderful 


too 


up 


weight 


wood 


took 


upon 


well 


word 


tooth 


use 


went 


work 


top 


useful 


were 


world 


[160] 









WORD LIST 



worry write year yet 

worth wrong yellow you 

wound wrote yes young 

wreck yard yesterday your 



[161] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Spelling Material 

word LISTS 

1. Ayres, L. P., A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spell- 
ing. Russell Sage Foundation, 1915.* 1 

2. Bauer, Nicholas, The Writing Vocabulary of the New 
Orleans Public Schools. Grade lists, Grades III- 
VIII. 

3. Boston Public Schools, Provisional Minimum and Sup- 
plementary Lists of Spelling Words for Pupils in 
Grades I to VIII. School Document No. 8, 1914. 

4. Chancellor, W. E., " Spelling." Journal of Education, 
Vol. LXXI, 1910, pages 488, 517, 545, 573, 607. 

5. Cook and O'Shea, " The Spelling Vocabulary." The 
Child and His Spelling, pages 125-245. Bobbs-Mer- 
rill Co., 1914 * 

6. Eldridge, R. C, Six Thousand Common English 
Words, 1911. 

7. Houser, J. D., " An Investigation of the Writing Vo- 
cabularies of Representatives of an Economic Class." 
Elementary School Journal, Vol. XVII, No. 10, 1917, 
pages 708-718. 

8. Johnstown, Pennsylvania, Public Schools, List of 
Spelling Words, 1918. Graded. 

9. Jones, W. F., Concrete Investigation of the Material 
of English Spelling. The University of South Da- 
kota, 1914.* 

10. Kansas City, Missouri, Public Schools, Preliminary 
Report of the Committee on Spelling. Research Bul- 
letin No. 2, 1916. 

11. Lewis, E. E., Spelling List for Use in Normal Train- 
ing High Schools. Circular No. 14, Iowa State De- 
partment of Public Instruction, Des Moines, Iowa, 
1914. 

i Starred references are especially recommended. 

[ 163] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

12. McDaniel, G. M., Tentative List of Words for Spell- 
ing for the First Four Grades. Hammond, Indiana, 
1915. 

IS. Monk, E. M., "Washington, D. C., Spelling List." 
Elementary School Journal, Vol. XVI, 1915, pages 
96-103. 

14. Pryor, H. C, "A Suggested Minimal Spelling List." 
The Sixteenth Annual Yearbook of the National So- 
ciety for the Study of Education, 1917, Part I, pages 
73-85. 1478 words, graded.* 

15. Scofield, F. A., " Experiment in Spelling in the Eu- 
gene High School." School and Society, Vol. V, 1917, 
pages 299-300. 

16. Smith, H. J., " Words Used Spontaneously by Chil- 
dren." Cook and O'Shea, op. cit., 5, 1 pages 257-264. 

17. " Spelling in Milwaukee." Journal of Education, Vol. 
LXXI, 1910, pages 153, 270, 383, 410. 

18. Studley, C. K., and Ware, Allison, Common Essen- 
tials in Spelling, Bulletin No. 7, State Normal School, 
Chico, California. Graded. 

19. Woolfolk, Algar, The Need of Intensive Work in Spell- 
ing. Master's Thesis, Teachers College, Columbia 
University, 1914. Unpublished. 

DIFFICULTY OF WORDS 

20. Ayres, L. P., op. cit., I. 1 

21. Boston Public Schools, Spelling, Determining the De- 
gree of Difficulty of Spelling Words. School Docu- 
ment No. 10, 1915* 

22. Brandenburg, G. C, " The Spelling Ability of Uni- 
versity Students." School and Society, Vol. VIII, 
1917, pages 26-29* 

23. Buckingham, B. R., Spelling Ability; Its Measurement 
and Distribution, pages 14-15, 69-75, 78-79. 
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1913.* 

i Number indicates the reference where the work was first cited. 
[164] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

24. Kansas City, Missouri, Public Schools, op. cit., 10.* 

25. Scofield, F. A., op. cit., 15. 

26. Tidyman, W. F., " Translating Percentile Differences 
in Word Difficulty into Ratios of Amount of Differ- 
ence." School and Society, Vol. V, 1917, pages 778- 
779. 

27. Woolfolk, Algar, op. cit., 19. 

COMMON MISSPELLINGS 

28. Hollingworth, Leta S., The Psychology of Special Dis- 
ability in Spelling, page 42. Teachers College, Co- 
lumbia University, 1918.* 

29. Kallom, A. W., "Some Causes of Misspelling." Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, Vol. VIII, 1917, Table 
I, pages 396-397.* See also " Classes of Errors." 

CLASSES OF ERRORS 

30. Brandenburg, G. C, op. cit., 22. 

31. Cook and O'Shea, op. cit., 5. 

32. Cornman, O. P., Spelling in the Elementary School. 
Ginn and Co., 1902.* 

33. Foster, W. T., " The Spelling of College Students." 
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. II, 1911, 
pages 211-215. 

34. Gill, E. J., " The Teaching of Spelling." Journal of 
Experimental Pedagogy, Vol. I, 1912, pages 310-319.* 

35. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, pages 38-39.* 

36. Kallom, A. W., op. cit., 29. 

37. Richman, Julia, " Spelling in the East Side Schools of 
New York." Educational Review, Vol. XXXV, 1908, 
pages 160-169. 

38. Rusk, R. R., "Analysis of the Spelling Errors of 
Adults." Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, Vol. II, 
1913, pages 119-122. 

39. Stead, H. G., " Spelling Errors in Children." Jour- 
nal of Experimental Pedagogy, Vol. II, 1914, pages 
362-364. 

[165] 



• 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

GRADING 

40. Jones, W. F., op. cit., 9, pages 22-24.* 

41. Studley, C. K., and Ware, Allison, op. cit., 18, pages 
8-9. 

GROUPING 

42. Abbott, E. E., On the Analysis of Memory Conscious- 
ness in Orthography. Psychological Review Mono- 
graph Supplement, Vol. II, 1909.* 

43. Arps, G. F., " Attitude as a Determinant in Spelling 
Efficiency in Immediate and Delayed Recall." Jour- 
nal of Educational Psychology, Vol. VI, 1915, pages 
409-418* 

4>3a. Brown, F. W., " Learning to Spell, Particularly ie 
and ei." Education, Vol. XXXIV, 1914, pages 582- 
587. 

44. Wagner, C. A., Experimental Study of Grouping by 
Similarity as a Factor in the Teaching of Spelling. 
Philadelphia, 1912.* 

HOMONYMS 

45. Pearson, H. C, " The Scientific Study of the Teaching 
of Spelling." Journal of Educational Psychology, 
Vol. II, 1911, pages 241-252.* 

The Psychology of Spelling 
mental processes 

46. Abbott, E. E., op. cit., 42* 

47. Arps, G. F., op. cit., 43. 

48. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, pages 79-80 * 

49. Itschner, H., Lay's Rechtschreibe-reform, im Ansch- 
luss an Versuche im Paedagogischen Universitdts-Sem- 
inars Jena besprochen. Jahrb. d. Vereines f. Wissen- 
schaftliche Pad., 32:206 ff. Dresden, 1900. 

4 50. Kline, L. W., " A Study in the Psychology of Spell- 
ing." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. Ill, 
1912, pages 381-400. 
[166] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

51. Lay, W. A., Fiirher durch den Rechtschreibunter- 
richts, gegriindet auf psychologische Versuche und 
angeschlossen an seine Entwichlungesgeschichte und 
eine Kritik des ersten Sack- und Sprachunterrichts. 
Wiesbaden, 1899 * 

52. Lobsien, Marx, Ueber die Grundlagen des Rechtschrei- 
bunterrichts. Heft 2 der Sammlung von Abhandlun- 
gen und Vortragen fur Padagogik der Gegenwart. 
Dresden, 1900. 

53. Marique, P. J., An Experimental Investigation in 
French Orthography. Pd.D. Thesis, New York Uni- 
versity, 1911. Unpublished. 

54. Schiller, H. H., Haggenmiiller, A., and Fuchs, H., 
Studien und Versuche uber die Erlernung der Ortho- 
graphic Berlin, 1898. 

55. Smedley, F. M., Report of the Department of Child 
Study and Pedagogic Investigation, Chicago Public 
Schools. Child Study Report, No. 3, pp. 62 ff., 1899. 

56. Spindler, F. N., " Memory Types in Spelling," Edu- 
cation, Vol. XXVIII, 1907, pages 175-181. 

CAUSES OF MISSPELLING 

57. Foster, W. T., op. cit., 33. 

58. Gregory, B. C, " The Rationale of Spelling." Ele- 
mentary School Teacher, Vol. VIII, 1907, pages 40^ 
55. 

59. Kallom, A. W., op. cit., 29. 

60. Whipple, G. M., " The Spelling of University Stu- 
dents." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. I, 
1910, pages 31-33. 

See also " Classes of Errors " and " Causes of Poor 
Spelling." 

CAUSES OF POOR SPELLING 

61. Carman, E. K., " The Cause of Chronic Bad Spelling." 
Journal of Pedagogy, Vol. XIII, 1900, pages 86-91. 

62. Douse, T. L., " Psychology of Misspelling." Mind, 
Vol. XXV, 1900, pages 85-93. 

[167] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

63. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28.* 

64. Shaw, E. E., " Is Spelling a Failure? " Educational 
Review, Vol. XLII, 1911, pages 170-182. 

65. Witmer, L., " A Case of Chronic Bad Spelling." Psy- 
chological Clinic, Vol. I, 1907, pages 53-64.* 

66. Wychoff, A. E., " Constitutional Bad Spellers." Peda- 
gogical Seminary, Vol. II, 1892, pages 448-451.* 

The Pedagogy of Spelling 
syllabification and diacritical marks 

67. Abbott, E. E., op. cit., 42 * 

MEANING 

68. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, pages 53-58.* 

DEFINITIONS 

69. Sewell, J. W., " Definition in the Spelling Recitation/' 
Elementary School Teacher, Vol. X, 1909, pages 367- 
375.* 

METHODS OF PRESENTATION 

70. Cook and O'Shea, " Methods of Presentation," op. cit, 
5. 

A 71. Fulton, M. J., "On Experiments in Teaching Spell- 
ing. Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XXI, 1914, pages 
287-289* 

72. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, page 16.* 

73. Itschner, H., op. cit., 49. 

74. Kratz, H. E., "A Study in Spelling." Studies and 
Observations in the Schoolroom, pages 127-140. Edu- 
cational Publishing Co., 1907. 

75. Lay, W. A., op. cit., 51.* 

76. Lobsien, Marx, op. cit., 52. 

77. Marique, P. J., op. cit., 53. 

78. Mead, C. D., " Spelling by Visualization vs. Drill 
Methods." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 
V, 1914, pages 29-31. 

[168] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

79. Schiller, H. H., Haggenmiiller, A., and Fuchs, H., 

op. Clt.y 54. 

80. Smedley, F. M., op. cit., 55. 

81. Turner, E. A., " Rules versus Drill in Teaching Spell- 
ing." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. Ill, 
1912, pages 460-461.* 

82. Winch, W. H., " Experimental Researches in Learn- 
ing to Spell." Journal of Educational Psychology, 
Vol. IV, 1913, pages 525-537.* 

83. Winch, W. H., " Further Experimental Research on 
Learning to Spell." Journal of Educational Psy- 
chology, Vol. IV, 1913, pages 579-592* 

84. Winch, W. H., " Additional Researches on Learning to 
Spell. The Question of ' Transfer ' and of ' Direct ' 
versus ' Indirect ' Methods." Journal of Educational 
Psychology, Vol. VII, 1916, pages 93-110.* 

SPELLING PLANS 

85. Calmerton, and Puddy, Lois, " A Socialized Recitation 
in Spelling." Primary Education, Vol. XXV, 1917. 

86. " Types of Spelling Lessons." Bulletin of the State 
Normal School for Women, Farmville, Virginia, Vol. 
I, No. 2, 1914, pages 30-57.* 

THE VALUE OF RULES 

87. Cook and O'Shea, " The Value of Rules," op. cit., 5* 

88. Turner, E. A., op. cit, 81* 

TRANSFER 

89. Cook and O'Shea, " Column versus Contextual Spell- 
ing," op. cit., 5. 

90. Cornman, O. P., op. cit., 32. 

91. Mead, A. R., " Transfer of Spelling Vocabulary." 
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. VIII, 1917, 
pages 41-44.* 

92. Tidyman, W. F., and Brown, Helen A., " The Extent 
and Meaning of the Loss in ' Transfer ' in Spelling." 

[ 169 ] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Elementary School Journal, Vol. XVIII, 1917, pages 
210-214.* 
J 93. Van Wagenen, K., " Spelling by the Dictograph 
Method." Educational Foundations, Vol. XXVI, 
1914, pages 17-20. 

94. Wallin, J. E. W., Spelling Efficiency in Relation to 
Age, Grade, and Sex, and the Question of Transfer. 
Warwick and York, 1911.* 

95. Winch, W. H., op. cit., 84. 

CLASS STUDY VERSUS INDEPENDENT STUDY 

96. Fulton, M. J., op. cit, 71* 

97. Pearson, H. C, " Experimental Studies in the Teach- 
ing of Spelling." Teachers College Record, Vol. 
XIII, Part II, 1912, Pages 37-66* 

SPELLING CONSCIOUSNESS 

98. Lull, H. G., " A Plan for Developing a Spelling Con- 
sciousness." Elementary School Journal, Vol. XVII, 
1917, pages 355-361. 

99. McFarland, W. H., " Relation between Spelling Judg- 
ment and Spelling Ability." Midland Schools, A 
Journal of Education, September, 1916, pages 19-21.* 

CORRECTION OF ERRORS 

100. Brandenburg, G. C, op. cit., 22.* 

101. Richman, Julia, op. cit., 37. 

102. Wyatt, Stanley, "The Correction of Spelling Er- 
rors." Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, Vol. II, 
1913, pages 124-125* 

Scales and Standard Tests 
buckingham scale 

103. Buckingham, B. R., op. cit., 23, opp. page 82.* 

104. Lewis, E. E., " Testing the Spelling Abilities of Iowa 
School Children by the Buckingham Spelling Tests." 

[170] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Elementary School Journal, Vol. XVI, 1916, pages 
556-564. 

105. Sackett, L. W., " Measuring a School System by the 
Buckingham Spelling Scale." School and Society, 
Vol II, 1915, pages 860-864, 894-898.* 

106. Sackett, L. W., " Disparity of Spelling Scales." 
Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. VI, 1915, 
pages 627-630. 

107. Thorndike, E. L., " Means of Measuring School 
Achievement in Spelling." Educational Administra- 
tion and Supervision, Vol. I, 1915.* 

107a. Tidyman, W. F., " A Descriptive and Critical Study 
of Buckingham's Investigation of Spelling Efficiency." 
Educational Administration and Supervision, Vol. II, 
1916, pages 290-304* 

AYRES SCALE 

108. Ayres, L. P., op. cit., 1* 

109. Ballou, F. W., " Measuring Boston's Spelling Ability 
by the Ayres Spelling Scale." School and Society, 
Vol. V, 1917, pages 267-270* 

110. Briggs, T. H., and Bamberger, Florence E., <e The 
Validity of the Ayres Spelling Scale." School and 
Society, Vol. VI, page 538. 

111. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, pages 60-67.* 

112. Kallom, A. W., " What is a Reliable Basis for Estab- 
lishing a Standard in Spelling? " Educational Ad- 
ministration and Supervision, Vol. Ill, 1917, pages 
539-542* 

113. Scofield, F. A., "Difficulty of Ayres Spelling Scale." 
School and Society, Vol. IV, 1916, pages 339-340. 

TESTS 

114. Ayres, L. P., " Tests in Spelling." The Public Schools 
of Springfield Survey, 1914, pages 71-74.* 

115. Hornbaker, W. R., "A Spelling Test for the Whole 
School." Educational Bi-monthly, Vol. VIII, 1914, 
pages 351-353. 

[171] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

116. Kratz, H. E., op. cit, 74, pages 127-140. 

117. Riley, J. R., The Springfield Tests, 1846-1905. % 
Study in the Three R's, pages 7-12. Springfield, 
Massachusetts, 1914. 

118. Starch, Daniel, "The Measurement of Efficiency in 
Spelling." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 
VI, 1915, pages 167-186. 

RESULTS IN THE USE OF SCALES AND STANDARD TESTS 

119. Ballou, F. W., op. cit., 109 * 

120. O'Hern, J. P., " Practical Application of Standard 
Tests in Spelling, Language, and Arithmetic/ ' Ele- 
mentary School Journal, Vol. XVIII, 1918, pages 
662-663* 

121. Otis, A. S., "The Reliability of Spelling Scales" 
School and Society, Vol. IV, 1916. 

122. Sackett, L. W., op. cit, 105. 

Factors Affecting Spelling Efficiency 
method 

123. Cornman, O. P., op. cit., 32. 

124. Rice, J. M., " The Futility of the Spelling Grind." 
Forum, Vol. XXIII, 1897, pages 163-172, 409-419 * 

125. Tidyman, W. F., "A Critical Study of Rice's Inves- 
tigation of Spelling Efficiency." Pedagogical Semi- 
nary, Vol. XXII, 1915, pages 391-400. 

126. Turner, E. A., op. cit, 81.* 

127. Wallin, J. E. W., op. cit, 94* 

128. Winch, W. H., op. cit, 84* 

TIME 

129. Cornman, O. P., op. cit, 32* 

130. Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, Califor- 
nia, Spelling Efficiency in the Oakland Schools, 1915, 
pages 69-71. 

131. Rice, J. M., op. cit, 124 * 
[172] 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



GRADE 



132. Buckingham, B. R., op. cit., 23, pages 14-15. 

133. Hornbaker, W. R., op. cit., 115.* 

134. Kratz, H. E., op. cit., 74. 

135. Tidyman, W. F., " The Relation of Age, Grade, Sex, 
?nd General Efficiency to Spelling Efficiency." Ex- 
perimental Studies of Spelling. Thesis, New York 
University, 1915. Unpublished. 

136. Wallin, J. E. W., op. cit., 94.* 

AGE 

137. Cornman, O. P., op. cit, 32. 

138. Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, California, 
op. cit., 130, pages 24-32.* 

139. Rice, J. M., op. cit., 124 * 

140. Tidyman, W. F., op. cit., 135. 

141. Wallin, J. E. W., op. cit., 94* 

SEX 

142. Cornman, O. P., op. cit., 32. 

143. Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, Califor- 
nia, op. cit., 130, pages 32-35.* 

144. Earle, E. L., and Thorndike, E. L., " A Sex Difference 
in Spelling Ability." Columbia University Contribu- 
tions to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education, Vol. 
XI, 1903, pages 47-50* 

145. Tidyman, W. F., op. cit., 135. 

146. Wallin, J. E. W., op. cit., 94 * 

OTHER FACTORS 

147. Cook and O'Shea, op. cit., 5. Spelling efficiency and 
composition. 

148. Cornman, O. P., op. cit., 32. Topics: Incidental in- 
fluences of home and school, Teaching ability. 

149. Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, Califor- 
nia, op. cit., 130, pages 41-60. Topics: Father's occu- 

[173] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

pation, Children's occupational ambitions, Father's na- 
tionality, Influence of home language.* 

150. Earle, E. L., " The Inheritance of the Ability to Learn 
to Spell." Columbia University Contributions to 
Philosophy , Psychology, and Education, Vol. XI, 1903, 
pages 41-46. A study of fraternal resemblance. 

151. Gill, E. J., op. cit., 34. Topics: Methods in reading. 

152. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, pages 53-58. 
Knowledge of meaning as a factor.* 

153. Houser, J. D., " Relation of Spelling Ability to Gen- 
eral Intelligence and to Meaning Vocabulary." Ele- 
mentary School Journal, Vol. XVI, 1915, pages 190- 
199. 

154. Kratz, H. E., op. cit., 74. 

155. Rice, J. M., op. cit., 124. Topics: Nationality, He- 
redity, Home environment, The personal equation of 
the teacher. 

GENERAL EFFICIENCY AND SPELLING EFFICIENCY 

156. Brandenburg, G. C, op. cit., 22.* 

157. Department of Public Instruction, Oakland, Cali- 
fornia, op. cit., 130, pages 36-38.* 

158. Hollingworth, Leta S., op. cit., 28, page 14.* 

159. Houser, J. D., op. cit., 153.* 

160. Tidyman, W. F., op. cit., 135* 

SIMPLIFICATION OF ENGLISH SPELLING 

161. "Decade of Simplified Spelling." Literary Digest, 
Vol. LIII, 1916, pages 609-611* 

162. " Increasing Vogue of Simplified Spelling." Literary 
Digest, Vol. LI, 1915, page 300* 

163. Lounsbury, T. R., " Confessions of a Spelling Re- 
former." Atlantic Monthly, Vol. LXXXXIX, 1907, 
pages 614-631.* 

164. Lounsbury, T. R., English Spelling and English 
Spelling Reform. Harper and Brothers, 1909. 

[ 174 ] ' 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

165. Simplified Spelling Society, London, The Pioneer of 
Simplified Spelling, Vol. II, No. 7, 1913. 

166. Teall, F. H., " Eccentricities in Spelling." Scientific 
American, Vol. LXXXIV, 1917, pages 280-281. 



General Studies — Summaries, Discussions, etc. 

167. Boston Public Schools, The Teaching of Spelling. 
School Document No. 17, 1916. 21 pages. Sugges- 
tions on methods of teaching.* 

168. Broome, E. C, and Redway, J. W., A Syllabus in 
Spelling and Pronunciation. Thompson Brown Co., 
1912. 24 pages. 

169. Broomwell, G. D., "Where and How Phonetic Spell- 
ing Should Be Used at Once." Elementary School 
Teacher, Vol. VII, 1906, pages 385-389. 

170. Burnham, W. PI., " The Hygiene and Psychology of 
Spelling." Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. XIII, 1906, 
pages 474-501. A good account of the history of 
the spelling movement, especially in Germany.* 

171. Grupe, Mary A., "A Review of the Pedagogical 
Studies in the Teaching of Spelling." Education, 
Vol. XXXIV, 1913, pages 1-19. 

172. Mead, W. E., "The Lost Art of Spelling." Educa- 
tional Review, Vol. XIX, 1900, pages 49-58. The 
remedy for poor spelling lies in the selection of a mini- 
mum content of common words. 

173. Menmann, E., " Die Erlernung der Orthographic" 
Vorlesungen. 2 Auflage, Band III, 1914, Z. 564- 
622.* 

174. Monroe, De Voss, and Kelly, " Spelling." Educa- 
tional Tests and Measurements, pages 112-144. 
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1917. A very good summary 
and discussion of the measurement of achievements in 
spelling.* 

175. Pryor, H. C, " Spelling." The Fourteenth Annual 
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of 

[175^] 



THE TEACHING OF SPELLING 

Education, 1915, Part I, pages 78-89. Current prac- 
tices in spelling. 

176. Public Schools of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The 
Teaching of Spelling. 

177. Richman, Julia, " Spelling in the East Side Schools of 
New York." Educational Review, Vol. XXXV, 1908, 
pages 160-169. Some difficulties met in teaching 
spelling to foreigners, with suggested remedies. 

178. Rusk, R. R., " Orthography." Introduction to Ex- 
perimental Education, 1912, pages 267-276. A partial 
historical account of spelling investigations. 

179. State of New Jersey Department of Public Instruc- 
tion, The Teaching of Spelling, 1912. 31 pages. A 
manual for teachers.* 

180. Straubenmiiller, Gustave, Standards of Spelling. New 
York. 7 pages. A manual. 

181. Suzzallo, H., " The Teaching of Spelling." Teachers 
College Record, Vol. XII, 1911, pages 259-330. A 
summary of recent tendencies in the teaching of spell- 
ing.* 

182. "Theory of Spelling Instruction." Bulletin of the 
State Normal School for Women, Farmville, Virginia, 
Vol. I, No. 2, 1914, pages 9-29. 

183. Tidyman, W. F., Experimental Studies of Spelling, 
Thesis, New York University, 1915. 377 pages. De- 
scription and critical treatment of important investi- 
gations to date, together with an original investigation 
of the relation of age, grade, sex, and general ef- 
ficiency to spelling efficiency. Unpublished. 

184. Ward, C. D., " Intensive Spelling." English Journal, 
Vol. Ill, 1914, pages 484-489. 

185. Williams, S. H., " Teaching of Spelling." Journal of 
Education, Vol. LXXX, 1914, pages 665-666. 



[ 176 ] 



INDEX 



Abbott, E. E., 52 
Age and spelling efficiency, 138 
Arnold, Sarah L., 9 
Arps, G. F., 13, 52 
Auditory presentation, 60; dic- 
tation, 61 
Ayres, L. P., 6, 8, 118 

Ballou, F. W., 59, 122 
Brandenburg, G. C, 97, 142 
Brown, Helen A., 54 
Buckingham, B. R., 12, 23, 25, 
117, 137 

Chancellor, W. E., 6 

Class vs. independent study, 76 

Combinations of orthographic 

exercises, 67 
Cook and O'Shea, 6, 7, 53, 75 
Cornman, O. P., 53, 97, 133, 

134 

Department of Public Instruc- 
tion, Oakland, California, 135, 
140 

Drill vs. incidental methods, 133 



Fuchs, H., 67 
Fulton, M. J., 69, 77 

General efficiency and spelling 

efficiency, 141 
Gill, E. J., 98 
Grade and spelling efficiency, 

136 

Haggenmiiller, A., 67 
Hollingworth, Leta S., 34, 49, 

57, 101, 102, 106, 122, 141 
Hornbaker, W. R., 137 
Houser, J. D., 141 

Independent study, 81 

Jones, W. F., 5, 9, 10, 18 

Kallom, A. W., 56 
Kratz, H. E., 137 

Lay, W. E., 50, 66 
Lull, H. G., 92 

McFarland, W. H., 92 
Marique, P. J., 68 



Errors, prevention of, 89 ; spell- 
ing conscience-motive, 89 ; 
spelling consciousness, 91 ; 
treatment of, 96; classifica- 
tion, 96; chance errors, 99; 
due to ignorance of the word, 
103; correction, 104; chronic 
bad spellers, 105 

Factors affecting spelling effi- 
ciency, 131 



source, 2; concrete investi- 
gations, 5; minimum word 
list, 6; spelling books, 6; 
number of words, 8; grading, 
9; grouping, 12; homonyms, 
17; and spelling efficiency, 
131 

Mead, A. R., 55 

Meaning and use of words, 47; 
definitions, 48; use of dic- 
tionary, 49 

[177] 



INDEX 



Measurement of spelling effi- 
ciency, 116 

Method and spelling efficiency, 
133 

Movements of hand and throat, 
62 

Nationality and spelling effi- 
ciency, 139 



Oral spelling, 63 



Pearson, H. C, 17, 69, 77 

Presentation of words, 41 ; pro- 
nunciation, meaning, and use, 
43; visual presentation, 51; 
auditory presentation, 60 ; 
oral spelling, 63; written 
spelling, 65; combinations of 
exercises, 67; a general 
method, 70; rules, 75 

Pronunciation, 44 ; syllabifica- 
tion and diacritical marking, 
45; phonics, 46 

Psychology of spelling, 31 ; 
mental imagery, 31; order of 
processes in learning, 34; 
principles of learning, 36 

Reviews, 83; exercises, 85; fre- 
quency, 87 
Rice, J. M., 133, 134 
Rules, value and use, 75 

"Seeing" and "hearing," 50 
Selection of exercises and 

methods, 42 
Sex and spelling efficiency, 138 
Smith, H. J., 5 



[178] 



Spelling reform, 131 

Standard tests, 117; utility, 
119; limitations, 121; mis- 
uses, 123; use, 125 

Starch, Daniel, 119 

Studley, C. K., and Ware, A., 
6 

Suzzallo, Henry, 49 

Tests, 111; preliminary, 21, 111; 

main, 113; review, 114 
Thorndike, E. L., 23 
Tidyman, W. F., 7, 28, 54, 93 t 

133, 137, 139, 141 
Time and spelling efficiency, 

134 
Turner, E. A., 75, 134 

Visual presentation, 51; steps, 
51; grouping, 52; emphasiz- 
ing difficult parts of words, 
56, 57, 58; trial recall, 60 

Wagner, C. A., 16 

Wallin, J. E. W., 53, 134 

Winch, W. H., 68, 69, 134 

Witmer, L., 106 

Word study, need of, 22; un- 
equal difficulty of words, 23; 
determining average word 
difficulty, 9,5 ; translating 
percentile differences into 
amounts of difference, 27; 
determining difficult parts of 
words, 56 

Words, selection and classifica- 
tion of. See Material 

Written spelling, 65 

Wychoff, A. E., 106 



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Terman, James H. Van Sickle, and J. Harold 
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Based on the Salt Lake City survey. A detailed explana- 
tion of tests applied to children and results obtained, 
a study of retarded and gifted pupils, health control, 
building and site problems, and financial matters. 
There are 47 diagrams and charts. Cloth. $1.50. 

SURVEY OF THE ST. LOUIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
By Charles H. Judd, J. F. Bobbitt, J. B. Cragun, F. 
H. Daniels, W. F. Dearborn, F. B. Dresslar, G. W. 
Ehler, F. N. Freeman, W. S. Gray, S. O. Hartwell, 
W. R. McCornack, G. A. Mirick, H. C. Morrison, 
E. A. Peterson and H. O. Rugg 

The most important school survey made in 1918. In 
three volumes. I. Organization and Administration. 
II. The Work of the Schools. III. Finances. Cloth. 
Each $2.25. 

Other volumes are in -preparation 
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WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

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j School Efficiency Monographs 1 

| Constructive educational books of handy size covering many edu- | 

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| THE PUBLIC AND ITS SCHOOL I 

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| AN EXPERIMENT IN THE FUNDAMENTALS 

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1 NEWSBOY SERVICE 1 

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| EDUCATION of DEFECTIVES in the PUBLIC SCHOOLS I 

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I COMMERCIAL TESTS AND HOW TO USE THEM | 

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